Anatomy & Physiology PDF

Anatomy- Derived from the Greek words e.g. cardiovascular physiology, respiratory physiology and reproductive physiology. ANA- apart TOMY- To cut...

Anatomy- Derived from the Greek words e.g. cardiovascular physiology, respiratory physiology and reproductive physiology. ANA- apart TOMY- To cut Pathologic physiology - is the study of the effects of HUMAN ANATOMY- study of the normal structures of diseases on organ or system functions. the human body and their relationships with one another. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY- study of the different functions of the normal structures of the human body and the involved processes of how these body parts work. HOMEOSTASIS - Maintenance of the body’s internal environment DIVISION OF HUMAN ANATOMY - Negative feedback loop A. Gross / Macroscopic anatomy -stability, Balance, Equilibrium - study of normal structures of the human big enough to HOMEOSTASIS REGULATION be studied by unaided eye. 1.Systemic Anatomy – study of structures of specific 1. Autoregulation – cells lack oxygen ,chemicals body systems would be released to dilate blood vessels 2. Extrinsic regulation - during exercise e.g. nervous and circulatory systems. nervous system commands inc of heart rate so blood will 2. Regional Anatomy – study of structures by body circulate faster regions. e.g. head region, thoracic region. ESSENTIAL LIFE PROCESS 3. Surface anatomy – study of the landmarks on the body surface of the different visceral organs. 1. Metabolism –all the chemical processes that occur in the body. B. Microscopic Anatomy 2. Responsiveness – the body’s ability to react to changes in environment both internally or - study of structures of the human body through use of externally. microscope. 3. Movement – motion occurring inside the human 1. Cytology – chemical and microscopic study of cells body, either the whole body or individual cells or 2. Histology – study of normal tissues of the body even the organelles within these cells. C.Embryology 4. Growth – an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size or number of cells. -study of development of the human body from 5. Differentiation – development of cells from an fertilization of ovum up to the period of extrauterine life. unspecialized to a specialized state. D. Neuroanatomy 6. Reproduction – formation of new cells for growth, repair or replacement or the production -study of normal microscopic, gross features and of a new individual. development of the nervous system LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY DIVISION OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 1. Chemical level Cell Physiology - the study of the functions of living cells 2. Cellular level - the cornerstone of human physiology 3. Tissue level Special Physiology - is the study of the functions of specific organs 4. Organ level e.g. cardiac physiology-is the study of the heart function 5. System level Systemic Physiology - all aspects of the functions of specific organ systems.  BODY SYSTEMS CELLS - Smallest units of life - Perform all activities necessary to maintain life e.g. metabolism, assimilation, digestion, excretion, reproduction TISSUE Made up of different types of cells Epithelial - covers and protects Connective - binds and supports other tissues Muscle - movement Nervous - connects sensory structures to motor structures Hemopoietic ORGANS - Tissues with same function grouped together. Examples: liver, stomach SYSTEM -A group of organs that perform a common function.  CAVITIES BODY REGIONS Dorsal -cranial, spinal 1. Head Ventral- thoracic, abdominopelvic 2. Neck 3. Trunk a) Thorax b) Abdomen c) Pelvic cavity d) Perineum 4. Upper extremities 5. Lower extremities THE ANATOMICAL POSITION -standing (or lying supine) erect -head and eyes directed forward. - Upper limbs by the sides with palms facing forward. -Lower limbs together with toes facing forward. ANATOMICAL PLANES 1. Coronal / Frontal Plane - Vertical planes -running from side to side -Divides the body or any of it’s part into anterior and posterior portion 2. Sagittal Plane / Lateral Plane -Vertical plane -from front to back - divides into right & left side 3. Horizontal / Transverse / axial -horizontal planes -divides the body into upper and lower parts 4. Median plane -saggital plane through the midline of the body -from front to the back dividing it into right and left halves  THE ANATOMICAL TERMS OF RELATIONSHIP 1. Superior / Cranial/Cephalic –towars the head end of the body; Upper (the hand is part of the superior extremity) 2. Inferior / Caudal – away from the head; lower(foot is a part of lower extremity) 3. Anterior / Ventral - front 4. Posterior / Dorsal - back 5. Medial – towards the midline; inner 5th finger and 1st toe 6. Lateral – away from the midline; outer 1st finger and 5th toe 7. Proximal – towards or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a part 8. Distal – away from the trunk 9. Superficial / External SECTIONS OF THE BODY 10. Deep / Internal Longitudinal section - vertical 11. Central Section 12. Peripheral Transverse sections -cross 13. Parietal section 14. Visceral Oblique sections: Cut the body not along any body planes (slant)  TYPES OF CELL PROKARYOTIC – Do not contain nuclear membrane/ envelope EUKARYOTIC-contains true nuclear membrane/envelope PROKARYOTIC vs. EUKARYOTIC CELL PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES ORGANISM Bacteria protest,fungi,plants Animals ORGANELLES few /none nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, etc DNA Circular / in the Linear / circular cytoplasm Bounded by a membrane RNA and RNA and protein RNA synthesized in PROTEIN synthesize in the the nucleus / protein same in the cytoplasm compartment CELL DIVISION Binary fission Mitosis / meiosis -The cell is the basic unit of biological organization -Basic composition Protoplasm/cytoplasm cell membrane TERMS OF MOVEMENT nucleus 1. Flexion – contraction; decreases the angle PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CELL between two body parts 2. Extension -straightening; increases the angle 1. Irritability/excitability -nervous tissue between two body parts 2. Conductivity- nervous tissue 3. Abduction -movement away from the midline 3. Contractility - muscle tissue 4. Adduction -towards the midline 4. Absorption & Secretion – Digestive Track 5. Circumduction – movement of a bvody region in 5. Excretion - excretory a circular manner 6. Respiration- respiratory 6. Rotation – rotate along axis; can occur within the 7. Growth & Reproduction- different parts of the vertebral column body 7. Inversion – sole facing medially 8. Organization 8. Eversion – sole facing laterally 9. Dorsiflextion – sole facing anteriorly PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL 10. Plantarflextion – sole facing posteriorly 1. CELL MEMBRANE 11. Supination – radius return the bones to their parallel position - trilaminar 12. Pronation – radius rotates over ulna - semipermeable 13. Protraction – Move forward 14. Retraction – move backward 2. CYTOPLASM 15. Elevation – closing of the mouth - colloidal 16. Depression – opening of the mouth - with organelles, inclusions, and cytoskeleton Organelles - iving structure found in cytoplasm Inclusion-temporary/non living structure Cytoskeleton- support  3. NUCLEUS Movement of solute from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute - with DNA in the form of: concentration with a CARRIER a. heterochromatin (inactive) OSMOSIS b. euchromatin (active) Movement of solvent (WATER) from an area of LOW solute concentration to an area of HIGH solute concentration FILTRATION ACTIVE- Lesser concentration to greater concentration ACTIVE TRANSPORT Movement of solute from an area of LOW solute concentration to an area of HIGH solute concentration ISOTONIC- EQUAL HYPERTONIC- SHRINKING HYPOTONIC- Swelling eventually; Lysis=Bursting The Cell Membrane - Double phospholipid layer with embedded proteins (TRILAMINAR) - the one to give shape -acts as receptor sites EXOCYTOSIS – releasing;exit; extrusion of substance within the cell -plasma membrane Membrane transport – selectively permeable membrane Osmosis protein channels active transport fluid mosaic model TRANSPORT PROCESSES ACROSS CELL MEMBRANE PASSIVE -greater concentration to lesser concentration SIMPLE DIFFUSION Movement of solute from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute ENDOCYTOSIS- entry of particlesn towards the cell concentration Phagocytosis – cell eating FACILITATED DIFFUSION pinocytosis – cell drinking  Cytoplasm of the Cell 3. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM System of membranes that makes up channels - Mostly water with chemical compounds in solution or Connects with outer nuclear and cell membranes colloid Solution: atoms or ions distributed in medium  Polar compounds go into solution TYPES OF ER:  Nonpolar compounds go into colloidal suspension  With organelles, inclusions, Cytoskeleton  Rough / Granular ER- for protein synthesis attached ribosomeS ORGANELLES (protein-EXTRACELLULAR USE)  Smooth / Non-granular ER- fat transport and Membrane bound organells - MEGLP sex hormone synthesis,HCL synthesis, release M – Mitochondria and recapture Ca+ in skeletal muslces. E – Endoplasmic reticulum 4. GOLGI COMPLEX/ APPARATUS (Dictyosomes) G- Golgi Complex Collection of flat saclike cisternae L- Lysosomes Concentration and collection of cellular compounds P- Peroxisomes / micorbodies Storage warehouses of the cell Carbohydrate synthesis site “packaging” Newly Discovered / Temporary to your cells 5. LYSOSOMES MELANOSOMES Digestive enzyme packages SECRETORY GRANULLES With acid hydrolases Lack oxidases and catalases Functionplay role in cellular defense Non- Membrane Bound Organelles digest stored food maintenance and repair of organelles RIBOSOMES suicide agents for old or weak cells a, primary lysosomes b. secondary lysosomes 1. MITOCHONDRIA c. Residual Bodies MITOCHONDRIA – singular 6. PEROXISOMES / MICROBODIES MITOCHONDRION- plural CONTAIN: Powerhouses of the cell  CATALASE – converts H2O2 into H2O Cristae - inner folds wherecellular respiration and O2 occurs  OXIDASE Synthesize ATP Energy requirements of cell determine cristae number Also accumulate 7. MELANOSOMES (THE MORE CRISTAE YOU HAVE THE MORE 8. SECRETORY GRANULES ENERGY IS BEING SYNTHESIZED BY MITOCHONDRION) Ca+,synthesize nucleic acids and proteins,oxidation of fatty acids. Billaminar (outer and inner layer) INCLUSIONS 1. GLYCOGEN 2. LIPID 2. RIBOSOMES 3. PIGMENTS Distributed throughout Cytoplasm Attached to rough Endoplasmic Reticulum a. Exogenous No membrane covering b. Endogenous Site of protein synthesis 1) lipofuscin free ribosomes- protein for INTRACELLULAR 2) melanin USE 3) hemoglobin 4) bilirubin  4. CRYSTALS 35-45% of length of interphase a.Crystals of Reinke 4. G2 phase phase before onset of mitosis b.Crystals of Charcot-Bottcher 10-20% of length of interphase CYTOSKELETON MITOSIS 1. MICROFILAMENTS (7 nm in dia.)  Prophase 2. INTEMEDIATE FILAMENTS (10 nm in dia.)  Metaphase a. Keratin- epithelial cells  Anaphase b. Vimentin- mesenchymal cells  Telophase c. Desmin- muscle cells d. Glial fibrillary protein- glial cells of nervous system e. Neurofilaments- neurons Centrioles - determine polarity of cell  Centrosome - two centrioles at right angles to each other (Composed of a set of triplets fibers) -Form spindle fibers during cell division -Guide duplicated chromosomes to daughter cells Cillia and flagella -Hair like protrusion from cell membranae -nuclear membrane has pores to allow substances passage cilia – line respiratory tract ; move materials across cell surface Flagellium-propels cell through a medium The Nucleus -Control center of the cell -Nuclear membrane has pores to allow substances passage Chromatin - genetic material inside nucleoplasm Nucleolus - site of ribosome formation INTERPHASE 18-24 hours inactive / resting phase FOUR PHASES OF INTERPHASE 1.. G1 (gap 1) phase (-) DNA synthesis (+) RNA and protein synthesis 30-50% of length of interphase KARYOTYPE 2. G0 phase 23 PAIRS cells pull out of the cycle 22 pairs: autosomes 3. S (synthesis) phase 1 pair: sex chromosome DNA synthesis/replication  XX : female layers of cells; not all apices of cells XY : male reach the surface (different heights of columnar cells) Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis b. MITOSIS 2. Stratified – more than one layer a. Transitional (UROTHELIUM – found in  Two daughter cells with exactly the same genetic urinary system) – several layer of cells material where the shape changes according to  Cellular division for growth, maintenance and functional status of the organ repair SHAPES OF THE CELLS MEISOS 1. SQUAMOUS  Four daughter cells with half the genetic material  Cellular division for Reproduction 2. CUBOIDAL 3. COLUMNAR SPECIFIC SUBTYPES: TISSUES ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF CELL LAYER + SHAPE OP THE CELL AND ITS SPECIAL CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES FEATURE LIKE PRESENCE/ABSENCE OF CILIA OR KERATIN 1. LINING/SURFACE EPITHELIUM - protection 1. SIMPLE 2. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM – Secretion A. Simple squamous Blood vessels- single layer of flat cell for easier functions of epithelial tissues: diffusion of substances Lungs(alveoli)- have only single layer of cells so 1. Protection that oxygen and carbondioxide can easily pass 2. Secretion through B. Simple cuboidal and C. Simple EPITHELIAL TISSUE Columnar  One of the fundamental types of tissue of the Secretion (secretory) or absorption body C. columnar 1) non-ciliated LINING / SURFACE EPITHELIUM 2) ciliated COMPOSITION: Epithelial Cells 2. STRATIFIED Extra Intercellular Substance A. Stratified Squamous CHARACTERISTICS If it needs to be moist in the mouth or vocal activity you have stratified squamous non - Contiguous cells -closely packed together keratinized Basal lamina In the skin where it is dry there is a presence of Avascular keratin so you have stratified keratinized Sheet or layers B. Stratified cuboidal Sweat glands and sebaceous gland were you SUBTYPE OF LINING/SURFACE EPITHELIUM have a secretory function TISSUE Based on the number of : layers of cells: 1. Simple – single layer of cells a. Pseudostratifed – single layer of columnar shaped cells with nucleus at variable location of the cell giving it false stratification or appearance of several  C. Stratified Columnar Lining cells of the ducts of salivary and mammary gland GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM D. Pseudostratified Columnar lining of the respiratory tract ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF CELLS 1. UNICELLLULAR – 1 cell 2. MULTICELLULAR – more than 1 cells ACCORDING TO PRESENCE /ABSENCE OF DUCTS 1. EXOCRINE - with ducts salivary glands 2. ENDOCRINE - ductless glands ACCORDING TO NATURE OF SECRETION 1. MUCUS -Secretes a thick and viscid product ;goblet cells 3. TRANSITIONAL 2. SEROUS -secretes a thin and watery product There is a change in the shape of the cells ;parotid gland depending on the functional status; the organ is 3. MUCO-SEROUS / MIXED - mixed secretion relaxed not stretch(thick cells); organ is stretch ;submandibular gland ; sublingual gland (flatten cells) 4. CYTOGENIC - glands that produce cells ;testis ;ovaries ACCORDING TO FATE OF SECRETING CELLS 1. MEROCRINE -no destruction of the secretory cells ; sweat gland 2. APOCRINE - partial destruction of secretory cells ;mammary gland 3. HOLOCRINE - total destruction of secretory cells ; sebaceous gland ACCORDING TO MORPHOLOGY 1. TUBULAR- elongated a. SIMPLE 1) simple tubular 2) simple coiled tubular 3) simple branched tubular b. COMPOUND  1) compound tubular Bone - compact, spongy 2. ALVEOLAR - Expanded Cartilage - hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage a. simple alveolar Adipose - brown, white, Reticular b. compound alveolar CLASSIFICATION OF FIBROUS CONNECTIVE 3. TUBULO-ALVEOLAR – Combination of the TISSUE two 1. Collagenous A. LOOSE COLLAGENOUS OR LOOSE AREOLAR - consists of collagen and elastic fiber II. CONNECTIVE TISSUE - most common cells found are fibroblast Supports and binds - Fibroblasts- are responsible for the large amounts of extracellular materials that production of the fibers of the matrix. separate cells from one another Components of Extracellular Matrix B. DENSE REGULAR COLLAGENOUS 1. Protein fiber a. Collagen - Same direction of collagen fibers b. Reticular - ex. Tendon C. Elastic 2. Ground Substance -is the shapeless background against which cells and collagen C. DENSE IRREGULAR COLLAGENOUS fibers are seen in the light - Different direction of collagen fibers microscope. An important component is proteoglycans made - ex. Dermis (skin) up of protein and polysaccharide 3. Fluid CONNECTIVE TISSUE 2.Elastic Found between other tissues Strong, yet elastic; allows for recoil of tissue after being stretched FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE 1. Enclosing and separating tissues CLASSIFICATION OF EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE 2. Connecting tissues to one another TISSUE 3. Supporting and moving 4. Storing energy MESENCHYMAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE 5. Cushioning and insulating - Source of all adult connective tissue 6. Transporting – Derived from mesoderm 7. Protecting – Delicate collagen fibers embedded in CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE semifluid matrix Subtypes: Mucus Fibrous/Connective Tissue Proper - found only in the umbilical cord. Wharton’s jelly. Collagenous- LCT, DRCT, DICT Elastic MUSCLE TISSUE Embryonic main characteristic is its ability to contract or Mesenchymal shorten Mucous TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE Specialized SKELETAL  CARDIAC 9. Storage of Vitamin D precursor (active vitamin D SMOOTH when exposed to sun light) 10. Contains cutaneous receptors that serve as sensors for touch, pressure, temperature and pain. 2 PRINCIPLE LAYER IV. NERVOUS TISSUE forms the brain, spinal cord and nerves contains very important cells which are neurons and neuroglia INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM composed of: 1. SKIN EPIDERMIS Heaviest, largest single organ Superficial protective layer of the skin 2.SKIN APPENDAGES: Composed of Stratified Squamous Keratinized Epithelium that varies in thickness A.sweat gland All but the deepest layers of epidermis are B. sebaceous gland composed of dead cells C. hairs Composed of 4-5 layers, depending on its D. nails location within the body SKIN Palms and soles have five layers because these areas are exposed to most friction - also called integument - simply means covering 1. STRATUM BASALE Composed of single layer of cells in contact with FUNCTIONS: the dermis 1. Keeps water and other precious molecules in the 4 types of cells: body A) keratinocytes - produce keratin which toughens & 2. Keeps water out waterproofs skin B) melanocytes 3. Protects the body from external agent - synthesize the pigment melanin providing a 4. Insulates and cushions deeper body organs protective barrier to UV radiation in sunlight 5. Protects body from mechanical, chemical, 2. STRATUM SPINOSUM thermal damage and also bacteria - cuboidal or slightly flattened cells -Contains several layers of cells 6. Regulates heat loss from body surface -Spiny appearance due to changed shape of 7. Acts as mini-excretory system, urea, salt, water keratinocytes are lost when we sweat -With limited mitosis -This layer plus stratum basale are collectively 8. Manufactures several proteins important to called Stratum Germinativum immunity  3. STATUM GRANULOSUM -Oxygenated blood flowing through the - Consists of only 3-4 flattened rows dermis gives the skin its pinkish tones of cells - Cells here appear granular due to the presence SURFACE PATTERN of keratohyaline granules 1. CONGENITAL PATTERNS 4. STRATUM LUCIDUM (Clear Layer) - fingerprints or friction ridges -Nuclei,organelles,and cell membranes are no - present on palms and soles longer visible so this layer appears clear -Exists only in the lips and the thickened skin of - formed by the pull of elastic fibers within the dermis soles & palms -Contains a transluscent substance called eleidin - function to prevent slippage when grasping objects 2.ACQUIRED LINES 5. STRATUM CORNEUM Deep Flexion Creases - found on the palms - 25-30 layers of flattened, scale like anucleated Shallow Flexion Lines - seen on knuckles and cells, which arecontinuously shed as flake-like surface of other joints residues of cells Furrows in the forehead and face (wrinkles) - - This surface layer is cornified and is the real acquired from continual contraction of facial muscles, protective layer of the skin such as from smiling or squinting in bright light or against - Cornification is brought on by keratinization and the wind; facial lines become more strongly delineated as the hardening , flattening process that takes one ages place as the cells die and are pushed to the surface 3. LANGER LINES - Friction at the surface of skin stimulates - Lines of tension in the skin produced by the orientation additional mitotic activity of stratum basale, of collagen and elastic fibers in nonrandom pattern or resulting in the formation of a callus for additional arrangement protection -Surgical incision should be made parallel to Langer lines to promote better wound healing. COLORATION OF SKIN - caused by expression of a combination of 3 pigments (melanin, carotene, hemoglbin) 1. MELANIN - Brown-black pigment produced by the melanocytes of stratum basale -Guards skin against damaging effect of UV rays of sunlight -Gradual exposure to sunlight promotes increased production of melanin; hence tanning of skin -In albino, there is a normal number of melanocytes but lacks enzyme tyrosinase, that converts the amino acid tyrosine to melanin -“freckles”- caused by aggregated patch of melanin -“vitiligo”- lack of melanocytes in localized areas of the skin causing distinct white spots 2. CAROTENE - a yellowish pigment found in epidermal cells & fatty parts of dermis - abundant in skin of Asians - together with melanin, accounts for the yellowish-tan color of Asians 3. HEMOGLOBIN -Not a pigment of the skin, rather it is the oxygen-binding pigment found in RBc  2. SWEAT GLANDS DERMIS - also called sudoriferous glands - widely distributed in the skin; numerous in palms, soles, - Deeper and thicker than the epidermis axillary and pubic regions - A strong and stretchy envelope that helps to hold the - secretion evaporates and cools in the body body together TYPES: - Blood vessels within the dermis nourish the living 1. Merocrine Sweat Glands portion of the epidermis - more numerous and found all over the body especially - With numerous collagenous, elastic and reticular fibers in forehead, back, palms and soles that give support to the skin - Secretion reaches skin surface via a duct that opens - Highly vascular and glandular directly on surface of skin through sweat pores - Secretion is mostly water with few salts - Contains many nerve endings and hair follicles 2. Apocrine Sweat Glands LAYERS OF DERMIS - much larger, localized gland found in axillary and pubic regions where they secrete into hair follicles 1. PAPILLARY LAYER - Not functional until puberty - Secretion is thick and rich in organic substances which - in contact with epidermis is odorless when released but quickly broken down by - Accounts for about 1/5 of the entire dermis bacteria into substances responsible for body odor. - With numerous projections called Dermal Papillae, that extend from the upper portion of the dermis into the 3. MAMMARY GLAND epidermis - Dermal papillae contain capillary loops, which furnish - Found within the breasts nutrients to the epidermis - Specialized sudoriferous or sweat gland that secrete -Some papillae house pain receptors (free nerve endings) milk during lactation and touch receptors (meissner’s corpuscles) - Under the stimulus of pituitary gland - Dermal papillae form the base for the friction ridges on the fingers and toes 4. HAIR 2.RETICULAR LAYER - Characteristic of all mammals, but its distribution, -Deepest skin layer function, density and texture varies across mammalian - Contains blood vessels, sweat & oil glands, and deep species pressure receptors (Pacinian Corpuscles) - Humans are relatively hairless, with only the scalp, face, - Many phagocytes are found here; they engulf bacteria pubis & axilla being densely haired that have managed to get through the epidermis - Men with more obvious hair because of the male hormone - Certain regions of body are hairless like the palms, CUTANEOUS GLANDS soles, lips, nipples, penis,labia minore - Lifespan 3-4 mos for eyelashes, 3-4 yrs-scalp 1. SEBACEOUS (OIL) GLANDS PARTS OF HAIR: 1. Shaft – the visible but dead portion of hair projecting - found all over the skin, except on palms and soles above surface of the skin - ducts usually empty into a hair follicle but some open 2. Root – enclosed in the follicle directly onto skin surface 3. Hair bulb matrix- the growth zone; - secretion is called sebum, a mixture of oily substance contains melanocytes that give color to hair and fragmented cells that keep skin soft and moist and prevents hair from becoming brittle - if the drainage pathway for sebaceous glands becomes 3 LAYERS OF HAIR IN CROSS SECTION blocked for some reason, the glands may become 1. Medulla – inner part infected, resulting in acne 2. Cortex – thick middle part - sebum also contains chemicals that kill bacteria 3. Cuticle – covers cortex and forms toughened outer - become very active when sex hormones are produced portion in increased amounts during adolescence, thus skin is oilier during this period of life 3 DISTINCT KIND OF HAIR IN HUMANS 1. LANUGO - fine, silky fetal hair that appears during the last trimester of development - Usually not evident on a baby at birth unless it has been born prematurely 2. ANGORA - grows continuously in length, as on scalp and on face of males 3. DEFINITIVE - grows to a certain length and then ceases to grow - most dominant type of hair (eyelashes, eyebrow,pubic, and axillary hair) - A sebaceous gland and an arrector pili muscle are attached to the hair follicle - When the muscle involuntarily contracts due to thermal SKELETAL SYSTEM or psychological stimuli, the hair follicle is pulled into an upright position, causing the hair to”stand on its end” and FUNCTION OF BONES producing goosebumps 1. SUPPORT 2. PROTECT 4. NAILS 3. MUSCLE ATTACHMENT - Found on distal dorsum of each fingers and toes 4. HEMOPOIESIS – red bone marrow -Forms from a hardened, transparent, stratum corneum 5. STORAGE OF MINERALS (Phosphorus, Calcium) of epidermis Consists of: HISTOLOGY OF BONES Nail Body - visible attached portion COMPONENTS; Nail Root- part of the nail covered by 1. BONE CELLS skin OSTEOBLASTS – embryonic bone cells & active in Nail Bed- where nail root and nail body bone formation are attached OSTEOCYTES – mature osteoblasts Free edge- the distal exposed border OSTEOCLASTS – bone reabsorption/resorption and attached to undersurface of remodeling. hyponychium Hyponychium - beneath the free edge Eponychium ( Cuticle) - covers the nail 2. MATRIX root COLLAGENOUS FIBERS – give resilience to bones - frequently splits causing a hangnail CALCIFIED GROUND SUBSTANCES -give Nail Matrix - proximal part of the nail bed hardness to bones, Calcium Phosphate, Calcium - growth area of the nail Carbonate Lunula -whitish crescent (half moon) MAINTAINING THE BONE shaped area at the proximal aspect of nail Endocrine system control -Fingernails grow at approximately 1 mm Parathormone – calcium release per week -hypocalcemia – pth release – ca++ release from - Growth of toenails is slower bone --- increased blood ca++ - nails are transparent and nearly -osteoclast colorless but they look pink because of Calcitonin – calcium storage the rich blood supply in the underlying -hypercalcemia –calcitonin release--- ca++ dermis deposition into the bones---decreased blood ca++  CLASSIFICATION OF BONES H- shape union of:FRONTAL, PAREITAL, SPHENOID, TEMPORAL According to structure Compact/Dense – outer part of long bones -osteon- functional unit/haversian system Spongy/Cancellous --in between the flat bones of skull and the inner part of the long bones. According to shapes Long bone -humerus, tibia, fibula, femur etc. Short bone- Tarsal bones, cuboid Flat bone – bones of the skull, frontal Irregular- facial bone and vertebra Sesamoid- develops within a tendon According to development Endochondral/Cartilaginous – formed via endochondral/intracartilaginous ossification Cartilage ---Ca++---- Bone Intramembranous -formed via intramembranous ossification Membrane ---Ca++--- bone Clavicle – 1st bone to start developing (5th week intrauterine) According to location *related to the middle meningeal artery common Axial -80 bones-skull, cause of EPIDURAL HEMORRHAGE ossicles,hyoid,sternum,vertebrae Appendicular- 126 bones CRANIAL BONES cranial – 8 Suture Calvarium- Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, CORONAL Sphenoid, Occipital SAGITTAL LAMBOIDAL CRANIAL BONES CALVARIUM Frontal Parietal Temporal Sphenoid occipital Fontanelles – Anterior & Posterior Fontanelle PTERION Sunken Fontanelle – Dehydration  Bulging Fontanelle – Meningitis FACIAL BONE HYOID -only bone in the body that is not attached in a muscle Facial bones– 14 PAIRED maxilla, palatine, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal, and inferior nasal conchae bones STERNUM UNPAIRED vomer, mandible Parts; - Manubrium - Body -Xiphoid Process Landmarks: Jugular/Supraternal Notch- T2-T3, Angel of Louis/Manubrio-sternal Joint – T4-T5, Xiphisternal Joint – T9 OSSICLES - three bones in either middle ear that are among the smallest bones in the human body. They serve to transmit sounds from the air to the fluid-filled labyrinth (cochlea). Malleus (Hammer) Incus(Anvil) RIBS Stapes (stirrup) Types according to attachment 1-7 true ribs (vertebra-sternal) (directly attached to the sternum) 8-10 false ribs (vertebra-chondral) (attached to cartilage of 7 and not directly attached to sternum) 11- 12 floating ribs (vertebral) (there is no attachment. Attached only to vertebrae)  atypical-T1,T2,T11,T12 Lumbar – kidney shaped body - short wide straight spine -mamillary process Types according to morphology 1. Typical – 3rd-9th Sacral -sacrum-posterior wall of pelvic cavity - 2 costal facets on head, 1 costal facet on tubercle Coccygeal- coccyx rounded upper border, sharp inferior border 2. Atypical – 1st,2nd,10th-12th Vertebra Cervical typical - C3-C6 -Quadrangular Body -Transverse Foramen -Bifid Spine -Triangular vertebral foramen Atypical – C1(Atlas)(-)body & spine -C2(Axis)(+)dens/odontoid process -C7(Vertebra Prominens)bifid spine Appendicular – 126 bones A. Pectoral Girdle (shoulder girdle) Thoracic -heart shaped body -costal facets on body and transverse processes -long pointe spine obliquely going down typical-T3-T10  Radius (thumb)(lateral) Ulna(smaller&longer) (pinky)(medial)- forearm Clavicle collar bone Scapula -shoulder blade B. Upper Extremities Humerus - arm Carpals(wrist bone)/Metacarpals/Phalanges  C. Pelvic Girdle (Coxae) Tibia (medial leg bone) & Fibula (lateral leg bone) D. Lower Extremities Femur- Thigh bone – Longest bone Tarsals/Metatarsal/Phalanges Patella – kneecap (sesamoid bone) Talus- also known as astragalus Calcaneus – heel bone JOINTS /ARTICULAR SYSTEM According to mobility Synarthrosis -immovable bones Amphiarthrosis- slightly immovable Diarthrosis- freely movable joints According to intervening structure Fibrous – immovable (suture, gomphosis, schindylesis, syndesmosis) Cartilaginous- slightly movable (symphysis, synchondrosis) Synovial -with a fibrous capsule around a synovial cavity between the articulating bones. Spheroid (cotyloid/ball & socket)- hip & shoulder joint Ginglymus/Hinge joint – elbow, ankle, & knee joint Trochoid/Pivot joint – atlantoaxial & superior radio-ulnar joint condyloid joint – metacarphophalangeal joint Ellipsoid Joint – radiocarpal joint *some books condyloid & ellipsoid are considered the same type of joint. Sellar/Saddle- between the trapezium & the metacarpal of the thumb Plane Joint – between 2 carpal bones