Lesson 1: Research Methods PDF

LESSON 1 I. RESEARCH METHOD- A systematic process or technique used to collect and analyze data to answer specific questions or test hypotheses in a study. It encompasses the tools, procedures, and strategies employed to gather info...

LESSON 1 I. RESEARCH METHOD- A systematic process or technique used to collect and analyze data to answer specific questions or test hypotheses in a study. It encompasses the tools, procedures, and strategies employed to gather information, measure variables, and interpret results in a structured way. Research methods can be broadly categorized into qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods, depending on the nature of the data and the research objectives. Methods of Acquiring Knowledge - ways in which a person can know things or discover answers to questions: Method of Tenacity- Information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it. Highly based on habit or superstition. One problem with the method of tenacity is that the information acquired might not be accurate - Belief Perseverance - habit leads us to continue believing something we have always believed Method of Intuition- Information is accepted as true because it “feels right”. A person relies on hunches and “instinct” to answer questions. The problem with the method of intuition is that it has no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge. Method of Authority- A person finds answers by seeking out an authority on the subject. Relies on the assumed expertise of another person. For many questions, the method of authority is an excellent starting point; often, it is the quickest and easiest way to obtain answers. Method of Faith- People accept any information that is given faithfully. People sometimes accept the word of an authority because they have complete trust in the authority figure. The problem with the method of faith is that it allows no mechanism to test the accuracy of the information Limitations of this method: - It does not always provide accurate information - The answers obtained from an expert could represent subjective, personal opinion rather than true expert knowledge - We often assume that expertise in one area can be generalized to other topics - People often accept an expert’s statement without question - Not all “experts” are experts Method of Rationality- Also known as rationalism. Involves seeking answers by logical reasoning. We begin with a set of known facts or assumptions and use logic to reach a conclusion or get an answer to a question. The answers obtained by the rational method must satisfy the standards established by the rules of logic before they are accepted as true Argument- A set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion Premise Statements- Facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true Limitations of this method: - The conclusion is not necessarily true unless both of the premise statements are true, even in a valid logical argument - People are not particularly good at logical reasoning Method of Empiricism- Also known as empirical method. Attempts to answer questions by direct observation or personal experience. Provides an easy, direct way to answer questions. II. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD- An approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answers. A carefully developed system for asking and answering questions so that the answers we discover are as accurate as possible. By combining several different methods of acquiring knowledge, we hope to avoid the pitfalls of any individual method used by itself III. STEP OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Step 1: Observe Behavior or Other Phenomena - Often begins with casual or informal observations - It is also possible that your attention is caught by someone else’s observations - At this stage in the process, people commonly tend to generalize beyond the actual observations. Inductive Reasoning - involves reaching a general conclusion based on a few specific examples Step 2: Form a Tentative Answer or Explanation - Usually begins by identifying other factors, or variables, that are associated with your observation Variables - characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals - Next, you must select one of the explanations to be evaluated in a scientific research study. Hypothesis - a tentative answer that is intended to be tested and critically evaluated Step 3: Use Your Hypothesis to Generate a Testable Prediction - Involves taking the hypothesis and applying it to a specific, observable, real-world situation - A single hypothesis can lead to several different predictions and that each prediction refers to a specific situation or an event that can be observed and measured Deductive Reasoning - using a general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples Step 4: Evaluate the Prediction by Making Systematic, Planned Observations - This is the actual research or data collection phase of the scientific method - The goal is to provide a fair and unbiased test of the research hypothesis by observing whether the prediction is correct - The research study is an empirical test of the research hypothesis Step 5: Use the Observations to Support, Refute, or Refine the Original Hypothesis - Compare the actual observations with the predictions that were made from the hypothesis - Some agreement indicates support for the original hypothesis and suggests that you consider making new predictions and testing them - Lack of agreement indicates that the original hypothesis was wrong or that the hypothesis was used incorrectly, producing faulty predictions IV. OTHER ELEMENTS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD It is empirical- The observations are structured to test a hypothesis about the way the world works It is public- The observations are available for evaluation by others, especially other scientists It is objective- The observations are structured so that the researcher’s biases and beliefs do not influence the outcome of the study  Pseudoscience- A system of ideas often presented as science but actually lacking some of the key components that are essential to scientific research. Examples are aromatherapy, astrology, yoga V. THE RESEARCH PROCESSES Quantitative Research- This type of research examines variables that typically vary in quantity. The results, or data, obtained from these measurements are usually numerical scores that can be summarized, analyzed, and interpreted using standard statistical procedures Qualitative Research- Involves careful observation of participants and is usually accompanied by extensive note taking. The observations and notes are then summarized in a narrative report that attempts to describe and interpret the phenomenon being studied 1) Find a Research Idea: Select a Topic and Search the Literature to Find an Unanswered Question- Identify a general topic that you would like to explore and review the background literature to find a specific research idea or question 2) Form a Hypothesis- Form a hypothesis, or tentative answer, to your research question 3) Determine How You Will Define and Measure Your variables- Identify the specific procedures that will be used to define and measure all variables. Plan to evaluate the validity and reliability of your measurement procedure 4) Identify the Participants or Subjects for the Study, Decide How They Will Be Selected, and Plan for Their Ethical Treatment- Decide how many participants or subjects you will need, what characteristics they should have, and how they will be selected. Also plan for their ethical treatment 5) Select a Research Strategy- Consider internal and external validity and decide between an experimental and a descriptive, correlational, non-experimental, or quasi-experimental strategy 6) Select a Research Design- Decide among between-subjects, within-subject, factorial or single-case designs 7) Conduct the Study- Collect the data 8) Evaluate the Data - Use the appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics to summarize and interpret the results 9) Report the Results- Use the established guidelines for format and style to prepare an accurate and honest report that also protects the anonymity and confidentiality of the participants 10) Refine or Reformulate Your Research Idea- Use the results to modify, refine, or expand your original research idea, or to generate new ideas.