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PRELIM FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY C. Method of Authority -expert in topic LESSON 1 - A person finds answers by seeking out an I. RESEARCH METHOD...

PRELIM FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY C. Method of Authority -expert in topic LESSON 1 - A person finds answers by seeking out an I. RESEARCH METHOD authority on the subject. A systematic process or technique used to - Relies on the assumed expertise of collect and analyze data to answer specific another person. questions or test hypotheses in a study. - For many questions, the method of It encompasses the tools, procedures, and authority is an excellent starting point; strategies employed to gather information, often, it is the quickest and easiest way to measure variables, and interpret results in a obtain answers. structured way. Research methods can be broadly categorized Method of Faith into qualitative, quantitative, or mixed - People accept any information that is methods, depending on the nature of the data given faithfully and the research objectives. - People sometimes accept the word of an authority because they have complete Methods of Acquiring Knowledge - ways in trust in the authority figure which a person can know things or discover - The problem with the method of faith is answers to questions: that it allows no mechanism to test the accuracy of the information A. Method of Tenacity - Information is accepted as true because it Limitations of this method: has always been believed or because - It does not always provide accurate superstition supports it information - Highly based on habit or superstition - The answers obtained from an expert - Belief Perseverance - habit leads us to could represent subjective, personal continue believing something we have opinion rather than true expert always believed knowledge - One problem with the method of tenacity - We often assume that expertise in one is that the information acquired might not area can be generalized to other topics be accurate - People often accept an expert’s statement - -resistance without question - -pinaniniwalaan ng karamihan - Not all “experts” are experts - - there is no way to verify the info B. Method of Intuition D. Method of Rationality - Ano ang kutob mo - Also known as rationalism - Theres is no way to verify - Involves seeking answers by logical - Information is accepted as true because it reasoning “feels right”. - We begin with a set of known facts or - A person relies on hunches and “instinct” assumptions and use logic to reach a to answer questions. conclusion or get an answer to a question. - The problem with the method of intuition - The answers obtained by the rational is that it has no mechanism for separating method must satisfy the standards accurate from inaccurate knowledge. established by the rules of logic before they are accepted as true  Inductive Reasoning - involves reaching a Argument general conclusion based on a few specific - A set of premise statements that examples are logically combined to yield a conclusion ii. Step 2: Form a Tentative Answer or Premise Statements Explanation - Facts or assumptions that are - Usually begins by identifying other presumed to be true factors, or variables, that are associated with your observation Limitations of this method: Variables - characteristics or conditions that - The conclusion is not necessarily true change or have different values for different unless both of the premise statements are individuals true, even in a valid logical argument - Next, you must select one of the - People are not particularly good at explanations to be evaluated in a logical reasoning scientific research study. Hypothesis - a tentative answer that is intended E. Method of Empiricism to be tested and critically evaluated - Also known as empirical method - Attempts to answer questions by direct iii. Step 3: Use Your Hypothesis to observation or personal experience Generate a Testable Prediction - Provides an easy, direct way to answer - Involves taking the hypothesis and questions. applying it to a specific, observable, real- world situation II. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD - A single hypothesis can lead to several An approach to acquiring knowledge that different predictions and that each involves formulating specific questions and then prediction refers to a specific situation or systematically finding answers an event that can be observed and A carefully developed system for asking and measured answering questions so that the answers we Deductive Reasoning - using a general statement discover are as accurate as possible as the basis for reaching a conclusion about By combining several different methods of specific examples acquiring knowledge, we hope to avoid the pitfalls of any individual method used by itself iv. Step 4: Evaluate the Prediction by Making Systematic, Planned III. STEP OF THE SCIENTIFIC Observations METHOD - This is the actual research or data collection phase of the scientific method i. Step 1: Observe Behavior or Other - The goal is to provide a fair and unbiased Phenomena test of the research hypothesis by - Often begins with casual or informal observing whether the prediction is observations correct - It is also possible that your attention is - The research study is an empirical test of caught by someone else’s observations the research hypothesis - At this stage in the process, people commonly tend to generalize beyond the v. Step 5: Use the Observations to actual observations. Support, Refute, or Refine the Original Hypothesis  - Compare the actual observations with the Qualitative Research predictions that were made from the - Involves careful observation of hypothesis participants and is usually accompanied - Some agreement indicates support for the by extensive note taking original hypothesis and suggests that you - The observations and notes are then consider making new predictions and summarized in a narrative report that testing them attempts to describe and interpret the - Lack of agreement indicates that the phenomenon being studied original hypothesis was wrong or that the hypothesis was used incorrectly, 1) Find a Research Idea: Select a producing faulty predictions Topic and Search the Literature to Find an Unanswered Question IV. OTHER ELEMENTS OF THE - Identify a general topic that you would SCIENTIFIC METHOD like to explore and review the background It is empirical literature to find a specific research idea or - The observations are structured to test a question hypothesis about the way the world works 2) Form a Hypothesis - Form a hypothesis, or tentative answer, to It is public your research question - The observations are available for evaluation by others, especially other 3) Determine How You Will Define scientists and Measure Your variables - Identify the specific procedures that will It is objective be used to define and measure all - The observations are structured so that variables the researcher’s biases and beliefs do not - Plan to evaluate the validity and reliability influence the outcome of the study of your measurement procedure Pseudoscience - A system of ideas often presented as 4) Identify the Participants or science but actually lacking some of the Subjects for the Study, Decide How key components that are essential to They Will Be Selected, and Plan scientific research for Their Ethical Treatment - Examples are aromatherapy, astrology, - Decide how many participants or subjects yoga you will need, what characteristics they should have, and how they will be selected V. THE RESEARCH PROCESSES - Also plan for their ethical treatment Quantitative Research - This type of research examines variables 5) Select a Research Strategy that typically vary in quantity - Consider internal and external validity - The results, or data, obtained from these and decide between an experimental and a measurements are usually numerical descriptive, correlational, non- scores that can be summarized, analyzed, experimental, or quasi-experimental and interpreted using standard statistical strategy procedures  6) Select a Research Design - Decide among between-subjects, within- subject, factorial or single-case designs 7) Conduct the Study - Collect the data 8) Evaluate the Data - Use the appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics to summarize and interpret the results 9) Report the Results - Use the established guidelines for format and style to prepare an accurate and honest report that also protects the anonymity and confidentiality of the participants 10) Refine or Reformulate Your Research Idea - Use the results to modify, refine, or expand your original research idea, or to generate new ideas.  LESSON 2 - All the individual publications are interconnected by cross-referencing, and I. Getting Started: Identifying A Topic there are many summary guides providing Area overviews that can send you directly to Common Resources of Research Topic specific topic areas a. Personal Interests and Curiosities- Look for research topics based on your own interests and concerns Tips for Starting a Review of the Related Literature b. Casual Observations- Watching the 1. Do your homework- This involves behavior of people or animals you reading books and journal articles to encounter daily can be an excellent source familiarize yourself with the topic of topics 2. Keep an open mind- Making adjustments is a normal part of the research process and usually improves c. Reports of Others’ Observations- These the result can include informal sources, such as 3. Focus- Discard irrelevant items, and news reports of current events, reports of focus on one question at a time recent research results, or even topics 4. Take one step at a time- You don’t need introduced in novels and television to do the whole thing at once programs Primary Source - a firsthand report in which the d. Practical Problems or Questions- authors describe their own observations Occasionally, topics for research will arise Example: Empirical journal articles, theses and from practical problems or questions you dissertations, and conference presentations of encounter in your daily life research results - Magagamit mo immediately 1) Applied Research - research that Secondary Source - a secondhand report in is directed toward solving which the authors discuss someone else’s practical problems observations -sometimes ay biased 2) Basic Research - studies that are Example: Books and textbooks, review articles or intended to solve theoretical meta-analyses, the introductory section of issues research reports and newspaper and magazine articles e. Behavioral Theories- Watch for theories that offer explanations for behavior or try The Purpose of Literature Search to explain why different environmental - To gain a general familiarity with the factors lead to different behaviors current research in your specific area of interest II. Searching the Existing Research Literature - To find a small set of research studies that “The Literature” will serve as the basis for your own - The mass of published information research idea consisting of hundreds of research - To find a set of published research reports journals and thousands of books devoted that define the current state of knowledge just to the field of psychology and in an area and to identify an unanswered thousands more for the rest of the question—that is, a gap in that knowledge behavioral sciences base—that your study will attempt to fill  - The key criterion is that the study (or Conducting a Literature Search studies) you find provides some Make notes of the following items: justification for new research a. Subject Words - make a list of the correct terms used to identify and III. Finding an Idea for a Research Study describe the variables in the study and Find Suggestions for Future Research the characteristics of the participants - The easiest way to find new research b. Author - commonly, a small group of ideas is to look for them as explicit individual researchers is responsible for statements in the journal articles you much of the work being done in a already have specific area. Combine or Contrast Existing Results c. Using online databases- A typical - Occasionally, it is possible to find a new database contains about 1 million research idea by combining or publications, or records, that are all contrasting two (or more) existing cross-referenced by subject words and results author names. Some databases are in full text (each record is a complete, word- The Components of a Research Article for-word copy of the original B. Introduction - discusses previous publication) Some databases provide research that forms the foundation for the only a brief summary: title, author, current research study and presents a clear publisher and abstract (a brief summary statement of the problem being of the publication, usually about 100 investigated words) C. Methods – this section presents details concerning the participants and the Screening Articles in a Literature Search procedures used in the study - Use the title of the article as your first D. Results - presents the details of the basis for screening statistical analysis and usually is not - Use the abstract of the article as your important for generating a new research second screening device idea - If you are still interested, look for a full- E. Discussions - typically begins by text version of the article summarizing the results of the study, - If it still looks relevant, then read the stating the conclusions, and noting any article carefully and/or make a copy for potential applications your personal use - Use the references from the articles that IV. Form a Hypothesis and Create a Research you have already found to expand your Study literature search Using a Hypothesis to Create a Research Study - The hypothesis is converted into a Ending the Literature Search specific research predication that can be - Theoretically, you should continue a verified or refuted by direct observation literature search until you reach a point - The method you select depends on a at which you no longer find any new variety of factors items - The fact that several different research - Realistically, you must decide when to studies can be created from the same call off the search general hypothesis gives you one more technique for creating a new research study  LESSON 3 Limitations of Operational Definition - There is not a one-to-one relationship I. Constructs and Operational Definitions between the variable that is being Variable measured and the actual measurements - Value that varies produced by the operational definition - Characteristics or conditions that change - They often include extra components or have different values for different that are not part of the construct being individuals measured - Researchers are interested in how variables are affected by different II. Validity and Reliability conditions or how variables differ from Consistency of a Relationship one group of individuals to another - The validity and reliability of - To evaluate differences or changes in measurements are established by variables, it is essential that we are able demonstrating the consistency of a to measure them relationship between two different measurements Constructs Positive Relationship - the two - Hypothetical attributes or mechanisms measurements change together in the that help explain and predict behavior in same direction a theory Negative Relationship - the two - They don’t exist, they describe behavior measurements change in opposite (ex: motivation, intelligence, hunger) directions - Ranges from -1.00 - +1.00 Theory - A set of statements about the Validity mechanisms underlying a particular - The measurement procedure is actually behavior measuring what it claims to be - Theories help organize and unify measuring different observations of the behavior and its relationship with other variables A. Face Validity- concerns the superficial - A good theory generates predictions appearance, or face value, of a measurement about the behavior procedure - Non-scientific Operational Definition - A procedure for indirectly measuring B. Concurrent Validity-the scores obtained and defining a variable that cannot be from the new measurement technique are observed or measured directly directly related to the scores obtained from - Specifies a measurement procedure (a another, better-established procedure for set of operations) for measuring an measuring the same variable external, observable behavior and uses - Mga kasabayang measurement (ex: the resulting measurements as a graph) definition and a measurement of the hypothetical construct C. Predictive Validity- the measurements of a - Kung papaano mag-manifest sa mundo construct accurately predict behavior - Kung paano gumagawa ang mga - Based on theory contruct D. Construct Validity- measurements of a D. Split-half- splitting the items on a variable behave in exactly the same way as questionnaire or test in half, computing a the variable itself separate score for each half, and then calculating the degree of consistency E. Convergent Validity- creating two different between the two scores for a group of methods for measuring the same construct, participants (ex: exam, may pattern then and then showing that the two methods hahatiin sa dalawa) produce strongly related scores III. Scales of Measurement F. Divergent Validity- measuring one specific - A procedure for classifying individuals construct and not combining two different into categories constructs in the same measurement process - Involves two components: a set of categories and a procedure for assigning G. Construct Validity - measurements of a individuals to categories variable behave in exactly the same way as A. Nominal- involve classification or the variable itself categorization based on one or more distinguishing characteristics, where all H. Convergent Validity - creating two different things measured must be placed into methods for measuring the same construct, mutually exclusive and exhaustive and then showing that the two methods categories produce strongly related scores B. Ordinal- permits classification like I. Divergent Validity - measuring one specific nominal scales. Rank ordering on some construct and not combining two different characteristic is also permissible. Have constructs in the same measurement process no absolute zero point. C. Interval- Has features like nominal and Reliability ordinal data. Contain equal intervals - A measurement produces identical (or between numbers. Each unit on the scale nearly identical) results when it is used is exactly equal to any other unit on the repeatedly to measure the same scale. Have no absolute zero point. individual under the same conditions Reached a level of measurement at which A. Test-Retest- established by comparing it is possible to average a set of the scores obtained from two successive measurements and obtain a meaningful measurements of the same individuals result and calculating a correlation between the two sets of scores D. Ratio- Has features like nominal, ordinal and interval data. Has a true zero point. B. Parallel Forms- when different versions All mathematical operations can of the instrument are used for the test and meaningfully be performed because there the retest exist equal intervals between the numbers on the scale as well as a true or C. Inter-rater- the degree of agreement absolute zero point between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviors (ex: score of panelist) IV. Modalities of Measurement B. Participant Reactivity- Participants Self-Report Measures - probably the most direct modify their natural behavior in response way to assess a construct. Is very subjective. to the fact that they are participating in a research study or the knowledge that they Physiological Measures – looking at the are being measured physiological manifestations of the underlying construct. Is very objective. Behavioral Measures - constructs often reveal C. Demand Characteristics- Any of the themselves in overt behaviors that can be potential cues or features of a study that: observed and measured - Suggest to the participants what the purpose and hypothesis is V. Other Aspects of Measurement - Influence the participants to respond or Multiple Measures - one method of obtaining a behave in a certain way more complete measure of a construct is to use two (or more) different procedures to measure the Laboratory same variable - Any setting that is obviously devoted to the discipline of science Sensitivity and Range - an important concern for - It can be any room or any space that the any measurement procedure is that the subject or participant perceives as measurements are sensitive enough to respond to artificial the type and magnitude of the changes that are Field Setting expected - A place that the participant or subject - Ceiling Effect - when the range is perceives as a natural environment restricted at the high end - Floor Effect - when the range is restricted at the low end Artifacts - a non-natural feature accidentally introduced into something being observed - an external factor that may influence or distort the measurements A. Experimenter Bias- The measurements obtained in a study are influenced by the experimenter’s expectations or personal beliefs regarding the outcome of the study Single-blind - the researcher does not know the predicted outcome Double-blind - both the researcher and the participants are unaware of the predicted outcome  LESSON 4 the brutal experiments performed on prisoners in Nazi concentration camps I. Ethical Concerns in the Research Process Consider the fact that the research process - Nuremburg Code - a set of 10 guidelines includes an element of serious responsibility for the ethical treatment of human participants in research and laid the You have reached the stage where other groundwork for the ethical standards that individuals become involved with your research are in place today for both psychological - The participants or subjects whose and medical research behaviors and responses you observe and measure during the course of the study American Psychological Association - The people who will see (and, perhaps, be - The main professional organization of influenced by) your report of the study’s psychologists in the United States, and the results largest psychological association in the world. Research Ethics - Concerns the responsibility of researchers Psychological Association of the Philippines to be honest and respectful to all - The Accredited Integrated Professional individuals who are affected by their Organization (AIPO) for registered research studies or their reports of the psychometricians and psychologists of the studies’ results Professional Regulation Commission - Researchers are usually governed by a set (PRC). of ethical guidelines that assist them to - It is the oldest and largest professional make proper decisions and choose proper organization of psychologists in the actions Philippines. - In psychological research, the American Psychological Association (APA) Short History of the APA Ethics Code maintains a set of ethical principles for - 1952 - the first APA committee on ethics research was set up - 1960s - APA members began to discuss a The Basic Categories of Ethical Responsibility formal code of ethics (in response to - Responsibility to ensure the welfare and major criticisms of Milgram’s now dignity of the individuals, both human and famous obedience study) nonhuman, who participate in their - 2002 - the most recent version of the research studies published APA Ethics Code - Responsibility to ensure that public - 2010 and 2016 – amendments were added reports of their research are accurate and in the latest version of the APA Ethics honest Code II. Human Participants in Research Short History of the PAP Code of Ethics - Until the end of World War II, researchers - 1980s - The Psychological Association of established their own ethical standards and the Philippines (PAP) adopted a Code of safeguards for human participants in their Ethics for Clinical Psychologists research - The major impetus for a shift from individualized ethics to more formalized ethical guidelines was the uncovering of  - 2007 - the Board of Directors of the PAP Active deception (or commission) - the resolved to constitute a committee to revise presenting of misinformation about the the code of ethics study to participants - 2008 - The committee chair and the c. Debriefing - a post-experimental assistants undertook the preparatory work explanation of the purpose of a study that is which involved studying the old Code, and given to a participant, especially if several documents related to ethical deception was used standards for psychologists d. Confidentiality - the practice of keeping - February 2009 - The complete committee strictly secret and private the information or conducted a day-long workshop to finalize measurements obtained from an individual the proposed Code of Ethics for Philippine during a research study. Psychologists e. Anonymity - the practice of ensuring that - April 2009 - The first draft of this Code an individual’s name is not directly was presented to the PAP Board of associated with the information or Directors measurements obtained from that individual. - July 2009 – The draft was further revised, and finally ratified by the PAP Board of III. Non-Human Participants in Research Directors Some reasons for using non-humans in research: Republic Act No. 10029- Philippine - To understand animals for their own Psychology Act of 2009 sake - An Act to Regulate the Practice of - To understand humans (many processes Psychology Creating for this Purpose a can be generalized from nonhumans to Professional Regulatory Board of humans) Psychology, Appropriating Funds Therefor - To conduct research that is impossible to and For Other Purposes conduct using human participants Major Ethical Issues Major Ethical Issues a. Informed Consent - requires the - The research must be justified and the investigator to provide all available researcher must be responsible for information about a study so that an minimizing discomfort or harm individual can make a rational, informed - The code also extends to the general care decision to participate in the study and maintenance of animal subjects - The code also refers to federal, state, and b. Deception – occurs when a researcher local regulations that govern housing purposefully withholds information or conditions, food, sanitation, and medical misleads participants with regard to care for research animals information about a study (Panloloko) Passive deception (or omission) - the withholding or omitting of information; the researcher intentionally does not tell participants some information about the study. IV. Ethics and Scientific Integrity Fraud in Science - Fraud - the explicit effort of a researcher to falsify or misrepresent data - Error - an honest mistake that occurs in the research process Why commit fraud? - The competitive nature of an academic career - A researcher’s exceedingly high need for success and the admiration that comes along with it Safeguards against Fraud - Replication - repetition of a research study using the same basic procedures used in the original - Peer Review - the editor of the journal and a few experts in the field review the paper in extreme detail - Publication - psychologists must share their original data with any other researcher who wishes to reanalyze the data to check significant claims Plagiarism - The unethical representation of someone else’s ideas or words as one’s own - Whenever someone else’s ideas or work has influenced your thinking and writing, you need to cite the reference - Whenever you use direct quotations or even paraphrase someone else’s work, you need to give that person credit - If an idea or information you include in a paper is not originally yours, you must cite the source