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EDWARDS—RESEARCH METHODS LECTURE NOTES SCIENCE—PAGE 2 Topic #1 SCIENCE Methods of Acquiring Knowledge 1. Science—merely one of several ways or methods of acquiring kno...

EDWARDS—RESEARCH METHODS LECTURE NOTES SCIENCE—PAGE 2 Topic #1 SCIENCE Methods of Acquiring Knowledge 1. Science—merely one of several ways or methods of acquiring knowledge about behavior. 2. Other (nonscientific) methods—some discussed in text. A. Intuition—spontaneous perception or judgment not based on mental steps (e.g., psychics; women's intuition; bad vibes) B. Common Sense—type of intuition; practical intelligence shared by a large group of persons (e.g., "Spare the rod, spoil the child"; "Old dogs can't learn new tricks"—but elderly can and do learn) problem is that commonsense changes from time to time and place to place according the whims of the culture. does not explain the "why" something works (pragmatic - not theoretical); cannot generate new knowledge C. Mysticism—belief in insight gained by means of a private experience such as an altered state of consciousness (e.g., hallucinogens) D. Authority—acceptance of information because it is acquired from a highly respected source (e.g., physician recommendation of aspirin; government; religious authorities; and many so-called experts) Science is grounded in intellectual freedom from the dogmas of authority; however, if you did not have faith in authority you would not be in this class listening to me. These methods all have limitations which make them inappropriate or unsuitable. For example, intuition is characterized as being extremely subjective. EDWARDS—RESEARCH METHODS LECTURE NOTES SCIENCE—PAGE 3 Working Assumptions of Science Science is based on a set of assumptions which are: 1. Realism—The philosophy that objects perceived have an existence outside the mind. 2. Rationality—The view that reasoning and logic, and NOT authority, intuition, "gut feelings", or faith, are the basis for solving problems. 3. Regularity—A belief that phenomena exist in recurring patterns that conform with universal laws. The world follows the same laws at all times and in all places. 4. Causality/determinism—The doctrine that all events happen because of preceding causes. 5. Discoverability—The belief that it is possible to learn solutions to questions posed, and that the only limitations are time and resources. Characteristics of the Scientific Approach 1. Science is empirical—obtaining knowledge through objective observation. Instead of debating with logic, just make observations. 2. Science is objective—observations made in such a way that any person having normal perception and being the same place at the same time would arrive at the same observation; it is limited to those phenomena shared by all. 3. Science is self-correcting—commitment to change based on empirical evidence. The empirical nature of science guarantees that new knowledge will be discovered that contradicts previous knowledge. (quite different from law, religion, tradition). e.g., we once thought that the environment caused much of behavior but now know that at least some of our behavior is hereditary. e.g., Newton's laws replaced by the theory of relativity 4. Science is progressive—compare to other things that change but are not necessarily better (fashion, music, literature, art). 5. Science is tentative—we never claim to have the whole truth on any question because new information may make current knowledge obsolete at any time. 6. Science is parsimonious—we should use the simplest explanation possible to account for a given phenomenon. "Occam's razor" 7. Science is concerned with theory—science tries to understand "why" something works whereas technology is focused on making something work (tech is usually far ahead of science!) EDWARDS—RESEARCH METHODS LECTURE NOTES SCIENCE—PAGE 4 Role of theories 1. organizing knowledge and explaining laws 2. predicting new laws 3. guiding research Advantages of the scientific method 1. The primary advantage of science is that it is based on objective observation. This is, observation that is independent of opinion or bias. 2. It allows us to establish the superiority of one belief over another. Processes (objectives) of science 1. Description – e.g., leadership types, company strategies, market share 2. Explanation (development of theories) – e.g., goal-setting increases motivation; self- regulation leads to success 3. Prediction (formulated from theories) – the search for causes; this is the "why" 4. Control - ultimately we seek to control our environments; we can use description, explanation, and prediction to solve problems Elements of the scientific process 1. Control (single most important element of the scientific process)—The ability to remove or account for alternative explanations (or variables) for obtained relationships. 2. Operational definition—Defining variables/constructs in such a way that they are measurable; this also serves to eliminate confusion in communication. Operational definitions are empirical referents that indicate/denote how a variable is to be measured. EDWARDS—RESEARCH METHODS LECTURE NOTES SCIENCE—PAGE 5 A construct that cannot be operationally defined cannot be studied—contrast charismatic leadership and social skills to age and accident involvement. It is more difficult to specifically define charisma (e.g., eye contact, voice inflection, likeability?) compared to accident involvement (e.g., number of recordable accidents). How would you define and measure charisma in a way that it can be studied? It is not impossible - merely difficult. Other examples such as ones' faith is nearly impossible to operationalize. Are BEAUTY and ATTRACTIVENESS the same? Is it possible to reliably measure FIRM PERFORMANCE in a way that everyone would agree? How about AGE? 3. Replication—the reproduction of the results of a study. Science also follows a basic research sequence in an attempt to answer questions. EDWARDS—RESEARCH METHODS LECTURE NOTES SCIENCE—PAGE 6 RESEARCH SEQUENCE