Ancient Mesopotamia & Greece PDF

Ancient Mesopotamia - Where was Ancient Mesopotamia located o In between the Tigris and Euphrates river valley, known as the Fertile Crescent o Modern day Kuwait, Iraq, and Syria - What three factors led to the success of Mesopotamia’s agriculture...

Ancient Mesopotamia - Where was Ancient Mesopotamia located o In between the Tigris and Euphrates river valley, known as the Fertile Crescent o Modern day Kuwait, Iraq, and Syria - What three factors led to the success of Mesopotamia’s agriculture o Stable climate, rich soil, and steady supply of fresh water o You need steady food supply (agriculture) to build a population; you need a steady population to build a civilization ▪ Rise in agriculture leads to specialization and trade - Many city-states under the Akkadian Empire o What is a city-state? o What came after the Akkadian Empire ▪ Assyria and Babylon - Innovations o What are ziggurats? ▪ Large temples, built to commune (speak with) the gods. o Developed math ▪ Base 60 system 60 seconds 60 minutes 360 degrees circle o Mapped and studies the sky ▪ Developed a 12 month calendar system which would become the zodiac ▪ Developed the 7 day week o Developed sophisticated writing system ▪ Cuneiform - Who and when was Babylon conquered? o 539 BC by Cyrus the Great of Persia Ancient Greece The Beginning of Ancient Greece - The Minoans Around 1750 B.C.E. - The Minoans built the first Greek civilization on the island of Crete in the eastern Mediterranean Sea The Minoans were sea traders who traveled to Egypt and Mesopotamia The Minoans learned about new ideas and technology from Egypt and Mesopotamia and adapted their culture based on these new ideas Maybe the Greeks got their polytheistic religion and Gods from the Mesopotamia and Egypt The Mycenaeans Around 1400B.C.E - The Minoans disappeared Possibly from a natural disaster according to Historians  The Mycenaeans were also sea traders and traded with not only Egypt and Mesopotamia, but also Sicily and Italy The Mycenaeans learned many skills such as writing, from the Minoans as well as other ideas and technology from Egypt and Mesopotamia These ideas and technology would have a lasting effect on Greek culture for the next millennia Religion The ancient Greeks worshiped many gods & goddesses They wrote myths, or stories, that explain the origins of the world & details the lives & adventures of their gods & goddesses Famous gods: Zeus- god of thunder & the most powerful; king of the gods Poseidon- god of the sea; brother of Zeus Famous goddesses: Hera- goddess of marriage, children, & the home & the queen of the gods; wife of Zeus Aphrodite- goddess of love & beauty The Rise of Greek City States Greece is made up of many isolated valleys and small islands This geography prevented the Greeks from building a large empire like that of the Egyptians and Mesopotamians Instead, they built small city states that often fought with one another The Acropolis At the center of each city-state was an acropolis The acropolis is the place where men gathered to discuss politics and worship their gods and goddesses Governments of Ancient Greece Between 750 B.C.E. and 500 B.C.E. - The Greek City States tried different forms of government At first city states were ruled by kings and queens = MONARCHY The landowning nobles won power as time passed = ARISTOCRACY In some city states, a middle class of merchants, farmers, and artisans gained power = OLIGARCHY The Creation of Democracy The city-state of Athens developed a form of DEMOCRACY The word democracy means “rule by the people” In a direct democracy, all of the citizens vote to make the laws The direct democracy of Athens is similar to what the United States bases part of their government on today  In the US, there are times when our citizens vote directly for laws The Two Most Powerful City States - Athens vs. Sparta Athens Sparta Had a limited democracy, or gov't by Sparta was a monarchy ruled by two the people kings Only Male citizens could vote in the Sparta had a military society Assembly/Laws made by assembly Boys trained to be soldiers and girls Traded with other city states were trained to be mothers of soldiers Education for Boys/ Woman inferior Trade and Travel Outside of Sparta was Both shared same language/gods and not allowed religious beliefs Only men born in Sparta and over the age of 30 were considered citizens Shared language/gods and religious beliefs with Athens The Persian War Persian leader Xerxes leads a series of attacks on Greek City-States 1st – Battle of Thermophylae – Famous for its portrayal in the movie "300" 2nd – Battle of Marathon in which Pheidippides ran 26.2 miles to deliver the news of Athenian victory. 3rd – In 490 B.C.E. - The Persians Attacked the city-state of Athens and the Athenians were again victorious Athens established themselves as a powerful city-state in Greece and believed the gods protected their city-state. Age of Pericles After the Persian defeat, Athens entered a Golden Age Athens organized the Delian League, an alliance with 150 Greek city-states & colonies in the Aegean region Athens used the Delian League to create an Athenian Empire A wise leader named Pericles was named leader of this Athenian Empire Athens had a direct democracy which meant that all male citizens had the right to vote and help run the government Pericles pointed out that citizens had a special responsibility to participate in government Under the leadership of Pericles, Athens became the cultural center of Greece Many thinkers, writers, and artists came to Athens during this time to take part in the growth of culture  Sparta will eventually form an opposing alliance with the neutral city-states The Peloponnesian Wars & the Fall of Athens Sparta and its allies resented Athenian wealth and power They formed a league to promote oligarchy while Athens and its allies promoted democracy The Peloponnesian Wars broke out between both sides in 431 B.C.E. After 27 years of fighting, Sparta defeated Athens Soon after, Sparta fell to Thebes, another Greek City-State Athenian democracy suffered tremendously, and the city declined while Greek city-states fought for almost 50 years Philosophers/Inventors Greek thinkers tried to understand the reasons for why things happened instead of blind faith of the gods The Greeks believed in beauty, balance, and order in the universe 3 famous Greek philosophers: Socrates Plato Aristotle Thales “The father of natural science” Believed the basic substance in the world is water, which changes its form (ice, liquid, steam) but not its composition Pythagoras “The father of numbers” Believed everything could be numbered Pythagorean Theorem: “The square of the hypotenuse of a right angle is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides” Hippocrates “The father of medicine” Believed that diseases have natural rather than supernatural causes Hippocratic Oath- still taken by medical personnel today Socrates vs. Plato Socrates Plato Developed the Socratic Method: Student of Socrates, famous for "The Learning about beliefs and ideas by Republic" asking questions Believed government should control The way to truth in life is through lives questioning everything around you Wanted a government ruled by the best men and women. Divided society into three classes: workers, philosophers, and soldiers  Aristotle Believed one strong and good philosopher king should rule The influence of Aristotle’s work on the physical sciences such as physics, biology, and anatomy, spread far and wide throughout Greece Aristotle was a student of Plato Alexander the Great became a student of Aristotle at Plato's Academy “In all things of nature there is something of the marvelous” “Misfortune shows those who are not really friends” “He who has overcome his fears will truly be free” Greek Art Greek art and architecture reflected the ideas of beauty, balance, and order Greek paintings and statues were life-like, but also idealistic, meaning they portrayed individuals in perfect form Ancient Greece were best known for their tragedies or plays that told stories of human conflict Others created comedies To the right is the Parthenon, an important acropolis, or high city built as the city center in Athens The Parthenon is a temple dedicated to the patron Goddess of the city, Athena The Olympic Games The first Olympic Games were held in 776 BCE in the city-state of Olympia During the first games there was only one event, the stadion, a short sprint that lasted the length of the stadium Over the years, many other events were added to the Olympic games, such as boxing, wrestling, chariot racing, & pentathlon Participation in all athletic events during the games was limited to males only Champions were awarded an olive branch from a tree that was dedicated to Zeus All champions were viewed as heroes for the rest of their lives The Olympic games were not held just for the athletic events The spectators & the athletes spent most of their time worshipping & honoring the gods Alexander the Great He was not Greek, but a prince that was born in Macedonia He was taught by Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, & greatly respected the Greek culture Alexander spoke Greek, knew Greek history, & believed in the Greek gods As King of Macedonia, Alexander’s main job was to expand his kingdom He spread Greek culture to all lands that he conquered It is believed that he would have extended the Macedonian kingdom to China if he had not died at a young age Ancient Egypt Geography Egyptian civilization arose along narrow strips of land made fertile by the Nile River shortly after Mesopotamia The river was important because the rest of the region was desert Geography Upper & Lower Egypt Most of Egypt’s history focused around Lower Egypt, around the Nile delta which flows into the Mediterranean Sea Upper Egypt developed later upstream Nile provided reliable transportation To go north, drift with the current towards the sea To go south, sail catching the Mediterranean breeze Environment Unlike Mesopotamia, the Nile was predictable Deserts on both sides of the Nile Provided natural protection against invaders Egypt would develop mostly in isolation & therefore, a culture that was unique The Nile River Location North Africa Natural barriers: Mediterranean Sea, Sahara Desert, Red Sea Less prone to invasion Nile River World’s longest river (4,000 miles) “Gift of the Nile” – annual flooding that deposits rich soil Intricate network of irrigation ditches Benefits: Easy communication, transportation, ample water supply  Worshiped as a god – giver of life & benevolent Egyptian Society Egyptian Kingdoms become one Menes: unified lower & upper Egypt around 3100 BC Religious Beliefs Polytheistic: belief in many gods controlling Earth Mummification: process of preserving the dead Afterlife: Happy field of food or Devourer of souls Pharaohs: God-Kings of Egypt Chief gods: Isis (goddess of fertility), Osiris (god of the dead), Ra (sun god), Horus (sky god) Social Order Kingdoms of the Nile Kingdoms of the Nile Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 BCE) Unification of Upper & Lower Egypt by Menes Foundation of the capital Memphis Early step pyramid is built at Saqqara Old Kingdom (2660-2180 BCE) Built the Great Pyramids of Khufu, Khafrew, & Menkaure at Giza Built the pyramids of Sahure, Neferirkare, Raneferef, & Neuserre at Abusir Middle Kingdoms (2180-1550 BCE) Fragmentation of centralized power Kings in Thebes establish control over all Egypt Chaos leads central administration in Lower Egypt to disappear following infiltration by Hyksos, an Asiatic people in the Nile Delta Upper Egypt dominated by kings in Thebes Kingdoms of the Nile Cont.  New Kingdom (1550-1070 BCE) Theban kind Ahmose expels the Hyksos & reunites Egypt, becoming an empire Reigns of such kings as Amenhotep & Thutmose Memphis now main residential city Ramses II (1290-1224 BCE) divides power in Middle East with the Hittites Qantir becomes capital of Egypt In 525 BCE, the Persian army invaded & conquered Ancient Egypt Egypt never regained its former glory Ptolemaic Dynasty (304-30 BCE) Alexander the Great conquers Egypt Cleopatra is the last Pharaoh Roman Period (30 BCE-640 CE) Romans take control of Egypt Pyramids These are the Giza pyramids, the most famous Pyramids were tombs for the kings These were built in 3500 B.C.E. Political: Egyptian Pharaohs Egyptians were led by Pharaohs They were priest-kings They were considered gods Served both political & religious roles King Tut is the most famous Mummies Egyptians who could afford to do so would have themselves mummified They believed in a better afterlife if their body was preserved The Egyptians took out all the internal organs, except the heart  When they removed them, the organs were put in canopic jars, that were put in the tomb with the mummy They did not take out the heart because it was believed to be the intelligence and emotion of the person The Egyptians thought the brain had no significant value, so they took it out through the nose The body was packed and covered with natron (a salty drying agent) After this the body was left for 40-50 days Egyptians Writing They used a form of symbols called hieroglyphics Ancient Egyptians used papyrus; a substance derived from the plant of the same name We did not know how to decipher hieroglyphics until 1799 AD when we discovered The Rosetta Stone Egyptian economy Although Egypt looks sophisticated, the economy is a traditional economy, based on farming and trade Egyptians traded up and down the Nile, with Mesopotamians and sometimes with Indus Valley (in Pakistan) Nubia People around the world have learned about the glorious past of the Egyptian empire, but most have failed to learn of the Nubia, which was sometimes even stronger than the Egyptian empire Nubia rivaled Egypt in wealth and power, and mutually influenced each other The Egyptians called them the Kush The Kush was comparable with Egypt, and both states communicated with each other constantly Today we do not hear of Nubia nor Kush In its place is northern Sudan With the construction of the Aswan high dam in the 1960s, Nubian land was flooded and that forced some 100,000 Nubians to seek new homes in Egyptian and Sudanese cities Nubia's glorious past is now under water  Fall of Rome Caesar’s Successor Caesar’s appointed successor was his adopted grandnephew Octavian Octavian won the power struggle with Marc Antony & Egyptian empress Cleopatra He was then given the title of Emperor Augustus, “Exulted one” The Second Triumvirate Caesar’s appointed successor was his adopted grandnephew Octavian The second Triumvirate formed in 43 BCE Caesar’s supporters banded together to eliminate his assassins Octavian, Mark Anthony, & Lepidus took control of the Republic Octavian forced Lepidus into retirement & became rivals with Mark Anthony Mark Anthony meets Queen Cleopatra of Egypt while leading troops in a campaign in Anatolia Followed her back to Egypt Octavian accuses Anthony of trying to rule Rome out of Egypt Civil war breaks out again & Octavian defeats Anthony & Cleopatra’s combined naval forces at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE) Anthony & Cleopatra commit suicide Octavian was then given the title of Emperor Augustus, “Exulted one” 500-year-old Republic comes to an end Emperor Augustus becomes Rome’s first emperor in 31 BCE Pax Romana (27 BCE-193 CE) Beginning with the rule of Augustus, Rome entered a two-hundred-year period (27 BCE- 193 CE) of relative peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana (Roman peace) It was during the Pax Romana that Rome experienced a Golden Age Accomplishments of Rome during the Golden Age included: The Coliseum Aqueducts & Sewers A relatively stable government Roads & improved infrastructure Allowed armies and information to move quickly & promoted unity within the empire Expansion of the empire & stabilized the frontier Expanded & improved trade Coined money Written history Roman law Religion Rome was traditionally polytheistic & persecuted followers of different faiths In 70 CE, a Jewish revolt resulted in the Diaspora, which was the dispersal of Jews from their homelands throughout the empire Due to their refusal to worship Roman gods, Christians were also persecuted throughout the empire Constantine was the first Roman emperor to legalize Christianity & convert to the religion Start of Rome’s Decline Rome’s decline started with the death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius in 180 CE Aurelius is widely considered one of Rome’s best emperors He led numerous successful military campaigns against Germanic tribes He implemented legal reforms to protect individual rights & prevent corruption He heavily promoted education & founded many schools He demonstrated religious tolerance towards different beliefs He maintained diplomatic relations with foreign powers He peacefully collaborated with the Senate & respected its authority He successfully helped the empire recover from its first pandemic, after trade routes opened with China This began a period of civil wars & political disorder Dividing the Empire During his reign, Emperor Diocletian (284-305 CE) believed the empire had become too large to manage In 286 CE, he divided the empire into 4 sections, each with its own ruler, to try & stabilize the empire Diocletian’s military power gave him ultimate authority over the other 3 rulers For a hundred years Rome experienced even more divisions until the empire was finally divided in 395 CE & became the Western Empire & the Eastern Empire This division changed Roman life & government forever Constantine Became emperor after Diocletian’s death & ruled from 306 to 337 CE Became the sole ruler in 324 Built a new capital city, Constantinople, in the east on the site of Byzantium in modern day Turkey Rome now had two capitals, Rome in the west & Constantinople in the east He filled his “New Rome” with a forum, large palaces, & an amphitheater Constantine became the first emperor to convert to Christianity in 312 CE His conversion led to the Christianization of the Roman Empire Reasons for Rome’s Decline Over taxation The government taxed its citizens heavily in order to pay for the defense of the borders The heavy taxes caused the middle & lower classes to hate the government The citizens who preserved & added to Roman culture, the urban upper class, lost interest in public life All classes of Roman citizenry did little or nothing to help the empire Political & military problems The constant demands of the Late Roman Empire robbed its citizens of their initiative & civic spirit For many, the state became the enemy, hated even more than the Germans The quality of Roman soldiers had deteriorated Mostly peasants who were not committed to Greco-Roman civilization Citizens no longer respected or honored military service  Many generals became corrupt & a lot of the wars depended on mercenaries Economic Considerations The western empire experienced a large decrease in population Less taxes Fewer agricultural workers Less men for the army Roman cities failed to expand their industry & commerce The economy could not support the demands of constant warfare Focus shifted from the city to the estate; from the streets to the farm Germanic Tribes Tribes were constantly putting pressure on Rome’s immense frontier borders The attacks left border areas poor & depopulated Rome’s borders became overstretched & impossible to completely protect In the second half of the 4th century, Huns from Asia moved into eastern Europe & put pressure on the German Visigoths Visigoths moved south, crossing the Danube River into Roman territory Initially Roman allies, the Visigoths revolted & defeated a Roman army in 378 CE More Germans crossed into Roman lands In 410 CE, the Visigoths sacked the city of Rome In 455 CE, the Vandals sacked the city of Rome In 476 CE, the Roman Army in the West suffered defeat to Odoacer’s Germanic army & the final western emperor, Romulus Augustus, was killed, officially ending the western Roman Empire Odoacer becomes the first King of Italy Romans called anyone who didn’t speak Greek a barbarian (even though the word barbarian actually means uncivilized, lacking in culture, & violent) End of the Roman Empire The final collapse of the western Roman Empire was in 476 CE, with the death of western emperor Romulus Augustus With western Rome gone, Europe begins the “Dark Ages” Eastern Rome with continue on & will be known as the Byzantine Empire Rise of Rome Geography The Italian peninsula is located in a strategic position in the center of the Mediterranean Sea Unlike the geography of Greece, which divided its people, the geography of the Italian peninsula allowed its people to unite under one government Rome’s location has many natural geographic advantages including: Fertile plain Located near a river Mediterranean Climate  Early History of Rome Indo-European peoples moved into Italy around 1500 BCE Lived as herders and farmers Around 800 BCE, other people, including the Greeks & Etruscans, settled in Italy Rome was settled by the Etruscans who had moved to the Italian peninsula from Asia Minor (could have possibly been the survivors of the Trojan War) The Etruscans brought with them many elements of Greek culture including mythology & architecture The religion of Ancient Rome was polytheistic Rome’s first government was a monarchy In 509 BC, the Romans overthrew the Etruscans & established a republic The governing body of Rome was the Senate, which represented the upper class, known as the Patricians The Republic In 509 BCE, Rome overthrew the last Etruscan king & established a republic The leader is not a king Certain citizens have the right to vote Greek influence: Government Architecture Religion The Republic was under constant threat Enemies surrounded Rome Long period of continuous warfare BY 267 BCE, Rome controlled almost all of Italy, defeating the Greeks & remaining Etruscans The Republic’s Military Some people had full Roman citizenship, but joined the military to raise their status Other groups were allies who controlled their local affairs but gave soldiers to Rome Anyone could become a Roman ___citizen____ after serving in the military Many of the conquered peoples felt invested in Rome’s success & would join the military The military was divided into smaller groups called legions Soldiers were called legionaires Because of the strength of the military, Rome began to expand Society Romans distrusted kingship because of their experience with Etruscan kings Early Rome was divided into two groups, the patricians & the plebians Patricians were large landowners & formed Rome’s ruling class Plebians were the farmers, artisans, and merchants of Rome & they made up a much larger portion of the population Slaves were not citizens & had no legal rights The rights of citizens in Rome were protected by the Twelve Tables This was written down & placed in _public_____ so that everyone would know the laws  Aspects of the Twelve Tables that serve as the basis for ________western law_______ include: Equal ____protection_______ under the law Innocent until proven ____guilty______ Rules of evidence Due to the strength of its _____military______, Rome was able to conquer areas through the Mediterranean world & beyond During the era of the Roman Republic, Rome became a _____colonial______ power Slavery Rome relied heavily on slavery Large numbers of _____war______ _______captives____ were brought to Italy as slaves Greeks were prized as tutors, musicians, doctors, & artists Worked in shops, made crafts, & performed household tasks, like cleaning & gardening Built roads & public buildings Farmed large estates of the wealthy Slave conditions were horrible & it was cheaper to work slaves to death & replace them than to care for them Architecture & Engineering Continued to use ____Greek_______ styles Created forms based on curved lines, like domes, arches, & vaults First people to use ___concrete________ on a massive scale Build enduring roads, bridges, & aqueducts Built over 50,000 miles of roads throughout the empire Many aqueducts supplied one million people with water Mediterranean Dominance Carthage was the biggest threat in the Mediterranean Founded around 800 BCE Along the north coast of Africa Large trading empire in the western Mediterranean __Hannibal_________ was Carthage’s greatest general Almost destroyed Rome during the Second Punic War Punic Wars The Punic Wars involved bitter fighting between Rome and Carthage (Northern Africa) for control of the Mediterranean region __3___ wars fought between Rome & Carthage The victories of Hannibal during the second Punic War almost destroyed Rome Rome created new ____armies_______ & a ______navy_____ Rome completely ______destroyed_____ Carthage in 146 BCE Spain became a Roman province Rome controlled the western Mediterranean Rome’s Senate Rome’s law-making body _____Patricians______ only  ___300________ members, serving for life Elected by the Patricians Had the power to appoint other ______government_____ ____officials_______ Controlled the army & ordered it to expand the boundaries of Rome by force Rome became wealthy & would gain thousands of slaves from each victory Unfortunately, jobs once held by loyal Romans were now done cheaply by slaves This led to violent revolt eventual ______Civil_____ _War__________ First Triumvirate Formed in 60 BC after Civil War breaks out in the Republic Government run by 3 men who shared power _____Julius______ ____Ceasar_______, Crassus (the richest man in Rome), & ___Pompey________ Caesar is elected ______consul_____ in 59 BC Grants himself governor of Gaul Wins decisive battles securing Roman borders in the North Seen as a military hero Eventually Caesar becomes ____too_______ _____powerful______ & the Triumvirate falls apart Senate, under the order of Pompey, demands that Caesar return to Rome without his army Caesar marched to Rome in 49 BCE with his army, causing Pompey to ____flee/run away_______ Civil war breaks out & Caesar wins Julius Caesar In times of crisis, the Senate could appoint a ____dictator_______ who would lead the country with absolute power for up to _______six____ months Due to his military prowess and success, the Senate appointed Caesar “______dictator_____ ____for_______ ___life________,” which he turned into absolute power Due to Caesar’s absolute power, he was ______assassinated_____ by senators who wanted to return to the ideals of the ______Republic_____ Caesar’s contributions to Ancient Rome include: Giving land to the poor Extending Roman citizenship to conquered peoples Aided poor by creating public works projects Expanded the Senate Started colonies for people without land Increasing the pay for soldiers Developing a more accurate calendar The Julian calendar Caesar’s Assassination Many feared Caesar would assume the title of king & set up a __dynasty_________ ______60_____ members of the Senate plot to kill him Marcus Brutus & Gaius Cassius are the main plotters  March 15, 44 BCE, Caesar is stabbed 23 times in the Senate chamber Killed on the Ides of March Ancient China Yellow River Civilization Modern China itself is a huge geographical expanse o Around 4000 BC, this huge area contained an almost infinite number of ethnic groups and languages o This history, in which a vast area populated by diverse ethnic groups became, over time, a more or less single culture, began in the Yellow River Valley The color yellow symbolized “centrality”, as in China is the center of the world Geography Ancient China developed apart from other cultures mostly due to its geography o Ocean, desert, & high mountains isolated China Isolated geographically, cut off from trade, there would be little opportunity for cultural diffusion in China’s case o Cultural diffusion- the spread of one culture’s ideas, products, traditions, beliefs, etc. to another people Shang Culture First written records o Calligraphy writing & paper making Sharp division between king’s nobles & the peasants Woods used as building material (not mud-dried bricks as in other regions) Peasants used wooden tools Shang made magnificent bronze weapons & ceremonial vessels From very early on, the idea of the “group”/community was more important than the idea of “individual”/or any single person Emphasis on family, respect of parents o Family emphasized in religion too; ancestor worship Chinese Invented Silk Silk was exotic and expensive, so it was good for trading with the rest of the world It is made from silkworms Silk also makes “paper” Chinese Invented Paper In the Middle Ages the Arabs made known throughout Muslim Spain a material which was to replace all its predecessors o This was paper, whose manufacture they imported from far distant and mysterious realm of China. The first paper appeared in China about 200 BC o Its name is derived from papyrus o Silk was transformed into paper by a process of pasting, but because silk was expensive, wool and cotton came to be used instead o This invention was attributed to Ts'ai Lun. In the picture to the right, is the manufacturing process used by the Chinese  o They steeped mulberry or bamboo bark in water, then kneaded it to produce a paste from which they obtained smooth thin sheets of paper Chinese astronomy 2137 BC - Chinese book records the earliest known solar eclipse on October 22 2000 BC - Chinese determine that Jupiter needs 12 years to complete one revolution of its orbit 1400 BC - Chinese record the regularity of solar and lunar eclipses and the earliest known solar variation 1200 BC - Chinese divide the sky into twenty-eight regions for recognitions of the stars 1100 BC - Chinese first determine the spring equinox 776 BC - Chinese make the earliest reliable record of solar eclipse Changes by the Zhou Dynasty The Zhou didn’t simply adopt much of old Shang culture, they also did introduce new things o A new idea of royalty that claimed rulers got their authority from heaven ▪ This was known as the Mandate from Heaven ▪ From this time on, the Chinese would believe in “divine” rule ▪ The meant disasters could be blamed on the rulers & they would frequently be replaced ▪ This led to a pattern of rise & fall of dynasties in China known as the dynastic cycle o The Zhou gave large regions of land & privileges to a select few nobles who then owed loyalty to the king in return ▪ This type of political system was known as feudalism o The Zhou introduced the first coined money, improved transportation with roads & canals, improved the efficiency of government with trained workers called civil servants, & introduced the first iron-making According to Chinese political theory, every dynasty goes through the so-called dynastic cycle: A new ruler unites China and founds a new dynasty China, under the new dynasty, achieves prosperity and a new “golden age” The royal family of the dynasty begins to decay, corruption becomes rampant in the imperial court, and the empire begins to enter decline and instability The dynasty loses the Mandate of Heaven, their legitimacy to rule, and is overthrown by a rebellion The Mandate of Heaven is then passed to the next dynasty Period of Warring States The first 300 years of Zhou rule were relatively peaceful and stable But that changed around 771 B.C.E. as nomadic tribes invaded from the north and as the noble families began to fight for power against one another The crossbow is introduced in China during this time of great conflict and chaos known as the Period of Warring States Chinese values collapsed during this period of arrogance, chaos, and defiance The Great Wall of China was built to keep the Mongols out Many died building it, and their bodies were used as filler for it