4th book animal husbandry 144 original.pdf

Assistant Agriculture Officer (AAO) - Notes (Updated edition – 2023) TNPSC – AAO / AHO ANIMAL HUSBANDARY TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932...

Assistant Agriculture Officer (AAO) - Notes (Updated edition – 2023) TNPSC – AAO / AHO ANIMAL HUSBANDARY TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 1|P a ge  Contents SI.No Topic / Subject Page No 1 Animal husbandry statistics of India and Tamil Nadu 1 – 17 Significance of livestock and poultry in Indian economy- Milk production- egg production-meat production- sporting event - livestock wealth in Tamil Nadu 2 Systems of livestock production 18 – 21 Extensive - semi intensive - intensive - mixed - IFS 3 Fodder production 22 – 41 Nutrition - Definition - Ration- Requirement and importance of green fodder, carrying capacity and forage cycle- Fodder trees- Silage and hay making- Hydroponics 4 Reproduction in animals 42 – 59 Oestrus cycle-detection of heat and its symptoms- Importance of Al. Basic study of the reproductive organs of a Bull/He-buffalo) - Fundamentals about semen production & processing. Artificial vagina structure. 5 Milk processing- pasteurization 60 – 75 Milk - Definition -Processing of milk - cooling Pasteurization - Definition - Various methods - Low Temperature Long Time and High Temperature Short Time advantages and disadvantages. 6 Milking methods and clean milk production 76 – 81 7 Terminologies in animal husbandry 82 – 87 8 Animal breeding - importance of cross breeding 88 – 93 9 Cattle breeds and its characteristics- Housing of Cattle 94 – 110 10 Care and management of cattle 111 – 126 Care and management of new born calf and heifers - Care and management of pregnant, lactating animals and work bullocks- Manure management methods 11 Buffalo rearing 127 – 133 Classification of indigenous, exotic buffalo- Breed characteristics of Murrah, Shruti 12 Animal diseases 134 - 151 Diseases classification - Viral, bacterial and metabolic - General control and TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 2|P a ge  preventive measures. Zoonotic diseases (Anthrax, Tuberculosis, Brucellosis and Rabies) - Prevention and control. 13 Sheep rearing 152 – 166 classification of breeds of Indian and exotic origin - Space requirement for adult and young stock- feeding 14 Goat rearing 167 – 178 Classification of breeds of Indian and exotic origin- Housing management - Type design-sheep & goat disease 15 Poultry production 179 – 235 Systems of poultry rearing, Nomenclature of commercial layers and broiler strains- Care and management of day old chicks - Brooder management. Care and management of layers, broilers- Poultry feeding 16 Important diseases of poultry: Viral - Bacterial - Protozoan 236 – 245 17 Institutions related to animal husbandry 246 – 253 18 Schemes related to animal husbandry 254 – 258 19 Snippets 259 – 274 20 Important note on animal husbandry 275 - 278 TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 3|P a ge  1.Animal Husbandry Statistics  Approximately 150 million households around the globe are engaged in milk production.  World milk production (roughly 81% cow milk, 15% buffalo milk, and 4% goat, sheep and camel milk combined) increased by 1.1 percent to about 887 million tonnes in 2021.  The countries with the highest milk surpluses are New Zealand, the United States of America, Germany, France, Australia and Ireland.  The countries with the highest milk deficits are China, Italy, the Russian Federation, Mexico, (CX-10 Algeria and Indonesia.  India is endowed with the largest livestock population in the world comprised of 537 million followed by Brazil and China  Milk production in the World: India (23.67%) > USA> China> Pakistan> Brazil  World's largest exporter of the milk is New Zealand  NESTLE (Switzerland based) has set up its first manufacturing facility in India at Moga (Punjab) Species-wise World Livestock Population and Milk Production (2020) S.NO Species Livestock Milk Production Population(in million) (in million tonnes) 1 Cattle 1526 718.04 2 Buffalo 204 134.43 3 Sheep 1263 10.62 4 Goat 1128 20.63 5 Pig 953 - 6 Chicken 33097 - 7 Camel 39 3.15 Total 40615 886.87 TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 4|P a ge  Top most country and India’s position in World livestock population and production S.No Species First rank Position Ranking Sectors in World of India of India Total livestock population, milk production, 1st 1 Cattle Brazil 2nd buffalo population, goat milk production, total bovine population, carabeef production 2 Buffalo India 1st Cattle population, goat population, goat meat 2nd production 3 Sheep China 3rd Sheep population; egg production 3rd nd 4 Goat China 2 Poultry population; meat production 5th 5 Pig China - Poultry meat production 6th 6 Chicken USA 5th 7 Camel Somalia 9th Camel population; wool production 9th Livestock and Poultry population in India S.No Species 19th Livestock Census 20th Livestock Census Growth Rate (%) 2012 ( no.in millions) 2019 ( no.in millions) 2012 -19 1 Cattle 190.90 193.46 1.34 2 Buffalo 108.70 109.85 1.06 3 Yaks 0.08 0.06 -25.00 4 Mithun 0.30 0.39 30.00 Total Bovines 299.98 303.76 1.26 5 Sheep 65.07 (Tnpsc –AHO, 2021 ) 74.26 14.12 6 Goat 135.17 148.88 10.14 7 Pigs 10.29 9.06 -11.95 8 Other 1.54 0.80 -48.05 animals Total Livestock 512.06 (TNPSC –VAS,2023) 536.76 4.82 9 Poultry 729.21 851.81 16.81 TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 5|P a ge   Contribution of livestock sector in Indian economy (GVA-Gross Value Added)- 6.17%  Contribution of livestock sector in Agriculture & allied sector (GVA)- 30.87% (TNPSC- AAO, 2021)  Milk production in India during 1950-51 was 17 Million Tonnes  Milk production in India: 209.96 million tonnes (2020-21) and 221.06 million tones (2021-22) showing an annual growth of 5.29%.  Top 5 milk producing states are: Rajasthan (15.05%), Uttar Pradesh (14.93%), Madhya Pradesh (8.60%), Gujarat (7.56%), Andhra Pradesh (6.97%). They together contribute 53.11% of total milk production in the country.  Tamil Nadu stands 11th in milk production (10.10 million tones) with 4.57% of the total milk production in the country  As per NITI Aayog, the milk production is estimated to reach about 300 million tones by 2030  India is largest producer of milk and contributes 23.67% of the world milk production  FAO Food Outlook (Nov, 2022) reported 1.34% increase in world milk production from 886.87 million tonnes in 2020 to 924.8 million tonnes in 2021 (estimates).  Rising demand for milk in India was mainly driven by population growth and increases in per capita consumption  ICMR recommendations on per capita availability  Milk - 280 g/day (TNPSC-VAS, 2020)  Egg - 182 eggs/year  Meat - 11 kg/year evil h  Top most states in animal production sector (BAHS, 2022)  Milk production - Rajasthan> Uttar Pradesh> Madhya Pradesh  Per capita availability of milk - Punjab (1271)> Rajasthan (1150)> Haryana (1051)  Egg production - Andhra Pradesh> Tamil Nadu> Telangana TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 6|P a ge   Per capita availability of egg - Andhra Pradesh (501)> Telangana (442)> Andaman&Nicobar (290)  Per capita availability of meat - Telangana> Haryana> Andhra Pradesh  Wool production - Rajasthan> Jammu & Kashmir> Gujarat  Meat production - Maharashtra> Uttar Pradesh> West Bengal  Per capita availability of milk in Tamil Nadu (2021-22)- 362 grams/ day  Per capita availability of milk in India (2021-22)- 444 grams/ day (130 g/ day during 1950-51)  Per capita availability of milk in World (2021)- 320 grams/ day  Average yield rate for milk (kg/day): 2021-22  Exotic Cows - 11.36  Crossbred Cows (CB) - 8.32  Indigenous Cows - 4.07  Non-Descript Cows -2.83  Indigenous Buffalo - 6.62  Non-Descript Buffalo Goat - 4.81  Goat -0.47  The milk production from exotic/crossbred cattle has increased by 6.16% and indigenous/ non- descript cattle has increased by 6.13% as compared to previous year.  In Tamil Nadu, the average milk yield of Cross Breeds/ Exotic cattle is 7.16 Kg pr day & Non Descriptive/ Indigenous cattle is 3.07  The milk production from buffaloes also increased by 4.44% as compared to previous year  Nearly 45% of milk production is contributed by Indigenous/Non-descriptive buffalos followed by crossbred cows (30%), Indigenous/Non-descriptive cows (20%), Goat (3%) and Exotic cows (2%) TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 7|P a ge   Top most states in animal population (2021-22)  Livestock - Uttar Pradesh>Rajasthan> Madhya Pradesh  Cattle - Uttar Pradesh>Rajasthan> Madhya Pradesh  Buffalo - Uttar Pradesh>Rajasthan> Gujarat  Poultry - Tamil Nadu> Andhra Pradesh> Telangana  Sheep - Telangana> Andhra Pradesh> Karnataka  Goat - Rajasthan> West Bengal> Uttar Pradesh  Top most states in species-wise milk production (2021-22)  Exotic/ CB cows - Tamil Nadu> Maharashtra Karnataka  Non-descript/ Indigenous cow - Rajasthan> Madhya Pradesh Uttar Pradesh  Buffalo - Uttar Pradesh >Rajasthan Andhra Pradesh  Goat - Rajasthan> Uttar Pradesh> Madhya Pradesh  Egg production (2021-22)  Egg production in India- 129.60 billion numbers  India ranks 3rd in the world in terms of total egg production  Tamil Nadu stand 2nd (20.83 billion numbers) in egg production  Per capita availability of egg in India- 95 eggs/annum  Per capita availability of egg in Tamil Nadu- 273 eggs/ annum  Egg production has shown positive growth as 6.19%  Top 5 egg producing States are Andhra Pradesh (20.41%), Tamil Nadu (16.08%), Telangana (12.86%) West Bengal (8.84%), Karnataka (6.38%) They together contribute 64.56% of total egg production in the country.  The total egg production from commercial poultry is 109.93 billion numbers and backyard poultry are 19.67 billion numbers contributing 84.82% and 15.18% of total production of egg respectively TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 8|P a ge   Improved Fowl contribute 88.67% of the total production of egg and 10.29% is from Desi Fowls  Wool production (2021-22)  The total wool production in the country is 33.13 million kgs  The wool production has decreased by 10.30% as compared to previous year  In 2021-22, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana have reported Zero wool production because of non-availability wool producing breed. Shifting to Meat production based cultivation  The top 5 wool producing States are Rajasthan (45.91%), Jammu & Kashmir (23.19%), Gujarat (6.12%), Maharashtra (4.78%) and Himachal Pradesh (4.33%). They contribute 84.32% of total wool production in the country.  Species-wise share of wool production: Ewes (63.78%) Ram/Wether (18.86%) and Lamb (17.37%). Tamil Nadu stand 18th (1.71 million kgs) in wool production  Meat production (2021-22)  The total meat production in the country is 9.29 million tones  India ranks 5th in the world in terms of total meat production  Tamil Nadu stand 6th (0.68 million tones) in total meat production of the country  Per capita availability of meat in India is 6.82 kg/year  The meat production has increased by 5.62% as compared to previous year  The meat production from poultry is 4.78 million tonnes, contributing about 51.44% of total meat production followed by Buffalo (17.49%), Goat (13.63%), Sheep (10.33%), Pig (3.93%), and Cattle (3.18%)  The growth of poultry meat production has increased by 6.86% over previous year  The top 5 meat producing States are Maharashtra (12.25%), Uttar Pradesh (12.14%), West Bengal (11.63%), Andhra Pradesh (11.04%) and Telangana (10.82%). They together contribute 57.86% of total meat production in the country TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 9|P a ge   Artificial Insemination (AI) coverage in India- 30% (70%-scrub bulls)  Indian govt has proposed increasing the coverage of AI from the current 30% to 80-90% by 2025  In 2021-22 a total of 980.60 lakhs of Artificial Insemination has been performed in all States.  Kerala tops in AI coverage (100%) while, Arunachal Pradesh and Ladakh has the lowest coverage (1%). Conception rate in India- 35%  NDDB's e-GOPALA (e-Generation of Wealth through Productive Livestock) is digital platform for marketing of dairy animals started in 10th Sep, 2020  NDDB's call centre “ Pashu-Mitra “ was initiated on 2nd Oct, 2020  National Kamadhenu Breeding Centre (NKBC)- Nellore, AP (Southern Region) & Hoshangabad, MP (Northen Region)  In India, about 86% of the total farmers are small and marginal, they own about 47.34% of farm land whereas own 75.25% of milch animals  India, about 46% of the milk produced is either consumed at the producer level or sold to non- producers in the rural area, the balance 54% of the milk is available for sale to organised and unorganised players.  As per OIE (World Organization for Animal Health), 60% of existing human infectious diseases are zoonotic and at least 75% of emerging infectious diseases of humans have an animal origin.  Avian Influenza (Bird Flu): Since 2006, the country has been reporting H5N1 Avian Influenza virus  Dairy microenterprise is characterised by immediate local consumption, unlikely to be traded outside and unsophisticated processing  In India the predominant dairy production systems may be classified as low-input and TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 10 | P a g e  low-yield system. First chairman of NDDB, Anand: Dr. Verghese Kurien  Operation flood was started in 1970 to enhance milk production in India.  First round of Operation Flood: 1970-1974  Second Round of Operation Flood: 1978 - 1985  Third round of Operation Flood: 1987 - 1996  National Milk Day - 26th November, birth anniversary of the "Father of White Revolution in India", Dr. Verghese Kurien also known as the Milkman of India Important days related to livestock sector World rabies day 28th September* World health day 7th April World milk day 1st June World food day 16th October World egg day 2nd Friday in October World zoonoses day 6th July National egg day 3rd June World veterinary day Last Saturday of April Wild life day 1st week of October World animal welfare day 4th October World meat free day 15th June *Death anniversary of Louis Pasteur who developed the first efficacious rabies vaccine Livestock sporting events in India S.No Name of the sporting event Home state 1 Jallikattu – evolved by our ancestors for Tamil Nadu selective breeding of Bos indicus cattle to propagate the superior native germplasm of excellent draught quality 2 Cock fight – blood sport between two Andhra Pradesh during the roosters (cocks), or more accurately festival of Sankranti gamecocks 3 Kambala – an annual Buffalo race (he- Coastal Karnataka TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 11 | P a g e  buffalo) held traditionally under the auspices of local landlords 4 Bail gadi shariat – Bullock cart races for Rural Maharashtra long, a source of recreation and entertainment for farmers 5 Camel race – Horse and camel race during Rajasthan the Pushkar fair period to attract the crowd 6 Bulbul fights – the fight organized in Assam every Sankaranti, coinciding with harvest festival Livestock wealth in Tamil Nadu  Animal husbandry- livelihood of more than two-thirds of the rural population  Livestock act as a living bank & insurance against income shocks  Livestock comprise of all farm animals having economic importance (milk, meat, wool, draught purpose). Poultry, dog, cat and rabbit are not fallen under the category of livestock  One livestock unit = 1 adult cattle/ buffalo = 2 pigs = 3 calves = 5 sheep/ goat  The first livestock census was conducted during the year 1919  Livestock census in India is conducted once in 5 years (Quinquennial) by the nodal agency ‘ Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying ‘ TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 12 | P a g e  Population Subject Category 2021-22 Species (In lakh Nos.)* Exotic and 91.28 cattle 95.19 Crossbred cow Indigenous and 6.22 Buffalo 5.19 Milk (LMT) ND cow Buffalo 2.40 Sheep 45.00 Goat 1.17 Goat 98.88 Total 101.07 Pigs 0.67 Desi Fowls 711.12 Others 0.07 Improved Fowls 20118.80 Toal Livestock 245.00 Duck 3.66 Fowls and other 995.16 Egg (Million birds (Farm) Nos.) Total 20833.80 Fowls and other 212.64 birds (backyard poultry) Cattle 0.52 Total Poultry 1,207.80# Buffalo 0.03 Sheep 0.68 Tamil Nadu ranks 1st in Poultry, 4th Meat (LMT) Goat 0.70 in Sheep, 7th in Goats, 13th in Pig 0.04 Cattle and 14th in Buffalo Poultry 4.88 population in the coutry Total 6.86 *As per 20th livestock census, 2019, #TNPSC – RAVS,2019  Per capita availability of milk - 362 gms/day  Per capita availability of egg - 273 Nos./year  Per capita availability of meat - 8.977 kgs/year  Livestock sector contributes about 5.63% to Tamil Nadu's Gross State Value Added (GSVA) and 43.70% to agriculture and allied activities TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 13 | P a g e   Native cattle & buffalo breeds of Tamil Nadu  Kangeyam (Tiruppur, Erode, Coimbatore and Karur districts)  Umbalachery (Thanjavur, Tiruvarur, Nagapattinam and Cuddalore districts)  Alambadi (Dharmapuri, Erode and Salem districts)  Pulikulam (Sivagangai, Madurai, Dindigul and Theni districts)  Bargur (Erode District)  Toda buffaloes (Nilgiris District)  Bargur buffaloes (Erode District)  Apart from these native cattle breeds, high milk yielding crossbred of Jersey (in plains) and crossbred of Holstein Friesian (in hills) are being reared extensively by farmers (TNPSC-AHO, 2021)  Tamil Nadu sheep native breeds:  Ramnad White (Thoothukudi and Ramanathapuram districts) Madras Red (Chennai,  Kancheepuram and Tiruvallur districts)  Kilakarisal (Ramanathapuram, Virudhunagar, Madurai and Dindigul districts) Vembur  (Thoothukudi district)  Trichy Black (Perambalur, Ariyalur, Tiruchirappalli and Villupuram districts) Coimbatore  (Coimbatore and Tiruppur districts)  Nilgiri (The Nilgiris district)  Sevadu (Tirunelveli district)  Kachaikatti karupu (Madurai district))  Mecheri (Salem, Karur, Dharmapuri Tiruppur and Erode districts) TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 14 | P a g e   Tamil Nadu goat native breeds  Kanni Adu (Virudhunagar, Thoothukudi and Tirunelveli districts),  Kodi Adu (Thoothukudi and Tirunelveli districts)  Salem Black (Salem, Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri districts)  1903 - Establishment of Madras Veterinary College.  1975 - Introduction of Artificial Insemination with Frozen Semen.  The State was declared 'Provisionally free from Rinderpest' from March 1998 onwards.  Subsequently, the State was declared ‘Free from Rinderpest Disease” from May 2002.  2002 - Tamil Nadu Livestock Development Agency (TNLDA) was created under the National Project on Cattle and Buffalo Breeding (NPCBB)  2006-2007: Livestock Insurance Scheme was introduced in five selected districts  2007-2008: Tamil Nadu Veterinary Infrastructure Improvement Project (TANVIIP) was launched with funds sourced from NABARD'S RIDF  2011-2012: CM Special Schemes viz., Free distribution of Milch Cows and Free distribution of Goats/ Sheep were inaugurated  2018-2019: Tamil Nadu Animal Welfare Board (TNAWB) was established.  2019-2020: Establishment of Integrated Livestock Park along with Veterinary College & Research Institute at Chinnasalem  Veterinary Epidemiology Centre was established at Chennai  Central Feed Technology Unit, Kattupakkam, Chengalpattu  Institute of Veterinary Preventive Medicine (IVPM), Ranipet - it was started as 'SERUM INSTITUTE' in 1932 at Madras Veterinary College to produce and ensure timely availability of vaccines for prevention of various livestock and poultry diseases  Poultry disease Diagnostic laboratories are functioning in 3 Districts viz., Erode, TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 15 | P a g e  Namakkal and Tiruppur  Central Referral Laboratory (CRL), the apex laboratory of Tamil Nadu state for diagnosis of livestock disease is located at IVPM, Ranipet (TNPSC-RAVS, 2019)  National Animal Disease Control Programme (NADCP): envisaged to control Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) and Brucellosis by vaccination in eligible Bovine population.  Under animal husbandry department a total of 13 farms, inclusive of eight livestock farms, three Sheep farms, one Poultry farm and one Fodder Seed Production farm are functioning  Exotic Cattle Breeding Farm, Eachenkottai (Thanjavur District)  Poultry Farm, Kattupakkam, (Chengalpattu District)  Fodder Seed Production Farm, Padappai (Kancheepuram District)  Scheme for Establishing Small Scale Native chicken farm units (250 birds unit) in Rural Areas- for women with 50% subsidy  25% subsidy to establish silage bale making unit on commercial line with a production capacity of 3,000 MT and above per annum for the purchase of the requisite machineries.  To encourage intercropping of forage crops, a cultivation incentive of Rs. 3,000 /acre were viznatal-ims2 provided as back ended subsidy  World Bank Assisted Tamil Nadu Irrigated Agriculture Modernisation Project (TN IAMP) Under this project 66 river sub-basins in 34 districts have been identified for animal husbandry activities  Advanced Institute for Integrated Research on Livestock and Animal Sciences (AIIRLIVAS) is being established in Thalaivasal, Salem District  Jallikattu events are to be conducted as per the Tamil Nadu Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Conduct of Jallikattu), Rules 2017.  "Vallalar Palluyir Kaapagangal" - aimed to support the NGOs which take care of TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 16 | P a g e  abandoned and injured pet animals and strays  Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (TANUVAS) - Asia's First Veterinary University was founded in 1989 by Kalaignar Dr. M. Karunanidhi  Poultry Research Station, Viral & Bacterial Vaccine Research Centre, Zoonoses Research Laboratory, Madhavaram, Chennai  Alambadi Cattle Research Station & Tiruchy Black Sheep Research Centre - Dharmapuri  Mecheri Sheep Research Station, Pottaneri, Salem  Avian Disease Laboratory, Thalaivasal, Salem  Kangayam Cattle Research Station, Erode (TNPSC-VAS, 2023)  Bargur Cattle Research Station, Bargur, Erode  Sheep Breeding Research Station, Sandynallah, Nilgiris  Namakkal - Poultry Disease Diagnostic and Surveillance Laboratory; Ethnoveterinary Herbal Research Centre for Poultry  Pulikulam Cattle Research Station, Manamadurai, Sivagangai  Backyard Poultry Research Centre, Karur  2020-21: Goat Research Centre, Tenkasi TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 17 | P a g e  2.Systems of livestock production  Livestock production systems are considered to be a subset of farming systems.  The classification criteria were limited to three: integration with crops, relation to land and agro - ecological zone Extensive:  In this system, the livestock are kept on grassland; all the operations are in open place.  Under this system, animals are maintained all the year round on pasture grazing only  Small shelters are made for young animals during extreme weather conditions  Livestock are raised in a very vast, semi-jungle, grazing land.  Oldest and elastic method  Requires extensive land  During day time animals are taken for grazing  Animals are housed during night time  Availability of fodder varies with season so variation in intake.  Cost of feeding - nil or negligible  Reason for not practising: a) Reduction in grazing land b) Tremendous pressure on cultivable land  Not suitable for high yielding animals (graded animals) - i) Temperature ii) Loss of energy iii) Average fodder Semi-intensive  In this system the animals are confined during part of a day under roof and allowed to graze during day time.  During confinement, concentrate feeding is done.  This system of rearing is more suitable for dairy, goat and some extent sheep TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 18 | P a g e   In this system animals were feed both by grazing as well as by stall feeding  Few months grazing- When grazing is ample and nutritive, no stall feeding is done  As the quality of grazing goes down, in addition to grazing, supplemental feeding-stall feeding of fodder is done  Daily / everyday grazing  During cropping season - confined to shed & other times - let loose for grazing Advantages Disadvantages  Exercise for the animal  Not suitable for high  Increase in fat % of milch animals yielding animals  Absences of leg, joint problem  Reduce over grown hoof problem  Feed cost is less as compared to intensive system  Identification of heat & disease in animals are easy Intensive  In intensive system all the operations are confined in one place (roof) and animal movement is restricted. Which facilitate mechanization and more production control.  Poultry, pig, rabbit are more suitable for this system.  This is a system of managing animals without any grazing, so it is also known as zero grazing system  Total confinement to shed throughout the year and fed.  This system is employed where land is of very good quality-fertile, deep and levelled, very costly and scarce Advantages Disadvantages  Restricted movement - energy  Over grown hoof TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 19 | P a g e  conservation, management easy.  Lack of exercise  Number of animals can be maintained  Leg and joint problem under direct supervision  Improperly maintained- severe disease  Space requirement is less outbreak. High feeding cost Mixed farming  Combination of crop production and livestock production to to sustain and satisfy farmers needs  Minimum 10% and maximum 49% of gross income must be contributed by the livestock Advantages Disadvantages  Maintenance of soil fertility  No planning  Bring constant income to the family  No scientific approach throughout the year  No relationship between available land  Proper use of by products and livestock Integrated farming system - (IFS)  In IFS, the defects of mixed farming are overcome by proper planning, monitoring and execution of work according to size of the farm, farm resources, agro-climatic etc.  In this type, the type of livestock species or poultry enterprises are selected based on the availability of feed, fodder, water resources of the farm.  Example of IFS in Tamil Nadu: Duck and fish rearing (TNPSC-AAO, 2017)  Most suitable IFS for wetland system is Crop+ Fish Poultry+ Mushroom (TNPSC-AAO, 2017)  Benefits of integrated farming system TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 20 | P a g e   Productivity improvement  Pollution free Environment  Net profit growth & fixed income  Recycling of farm residues  Sustainable growth in agriculture  Increase in employment Farming system components a)Wetland farming system: Crops, Fish, Pigeon, Pig  Crop + Fish + Duck  Crop + Fish +Mushroom  Crop + Fish + Pigeon  Crop + Fish + Pig + Mushroom  Crop + Fish+ Poultry + Mushroom  Crop + Fish + Goat b)Garden land farming system- Crops, milch animals, mushroom, apiary, goat, biogas plant, sericulture  Crop Dairy + Biogas  Crop + Daily + Biogas + Sericulture  Crop+ Dairy+ Biogas + Fishery  Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Homestead garden + Silvi-pasture  Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Homestead garden + Silvi-culture + Apiculture.  Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Spawn production + Mushroom  Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Spawn production + Mushroom + Silvi-culture c)Dry land farming system - Crops, fruit trees, goat, rabbit  Crop + Goat (or) Crop + Goat + Rabbit  Crop + Goat + Agroforestry  Crop + Goat + Agroforestry + Horticulture  Crop + Goat + Agro-forestry + Horticulture + Farm pond  Crop + Goat + Buffalo + Agro-forestry + Farm pond TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 21 | P a g e   Crop + Goat + Pigeon + Buffalo + Agro-forestry + Farm pond 3. Fodder production  At present, the country faces a net deficit of 35.6% green fodder, 10.95% dry crop residues and 44% concentrate feed ingredients (TNPSC-AAO, 2021)  At the current level of growth in forage resources, there will be 18.4% deficit in green fodder and 13.2% deficit in dry fodder in the year 2050  Seed availability of forage crops is just 15-20% of national requirement  At present seed replacement rate in fodder crops is less than 20%  About 60-70% of total cost in livestock production is due to feed and fodder  The total area under fodder cultivation is 9.2 mha (nearly 5%) area for last few decades  Permanent pasture & common grazing land in India -10.2 m ha  Limited availability of high yielding variety fodder, lack of quality seeds of improved varieties, lack of post-harvest management for surplus fodder, poor management of pasture lands etc., are the limitations in increasing the area under fodder crops  Fodder production and its utilization depend on the cropping pattern, climate and socio economic conditions and type of livestock  Common Property Resources (CPR) includes forests, permanent pastures & grazing lands etc  Sorghum amongst the kharif crop (2.6 mha) and Berseem amongst the rabi crops (1.9 mha) occupy about 54% of total cultivated fodder area  Around 50% animals depend on grazing in forests and other grazing areas in many parts of India  Total area available for grazing in the country is in the range of about 40% of the land area  In states like Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Jammu & Kashmir, Meghalaya, Nagaland TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 22 | P a g e  and Arunachal Pradesh over 70 per cent of land area is utilized as grazing ground.  The major sources of fodder supply is through crop residues, cultivated fodder and CPR  Grasses contains high Ca content whereas low in 'P' content  Digestible Crude Protein (DCP): the amount of crude protein actually absorbed by the animal (crude protein minus the protein lost in feces)  Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN): measuring available energy of feeds & energy requirement of animals  Soilage/ zero grazing- pasture, when cut and fed green to an animal in its own stall Nutrition & ration  Nutrient  It is defined as any food constituent or group of food constituents of the same general composition that aids in the support of animal life.  There are six classes of nutrients that are essential to every living animal for survival viz., Water, Protein, Carbohydrates, Fats/Lipids, Vitamins & Minerals  Father of nutrition- Antoine Lavoiser  Importance of nutrients  Water - helps in digestion and excretion  Carbohydrate - provide energy  Protein - building blocks of muscles  Fat - provide 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates  Minerals and vitamins - metabolic functions of nutrients  Feed or feed stuff  Feed of animals comprising any naturally occurring ingredient or material fed to animals for the purpose of sustaining growth and development  Consist of roughage, concentrate and feed additives  Ration TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 23 | P a g e   A ration is the feed allowed for a given animal during a day of 24 hours.  The feed may be given at a time or in portions at intervals.  Desirable characteristics of a ration  Liberal feeding  Individual feeding  The ration should be properly balanced  The ration must be palatable  Variety of feed in the ration  The ration should contain enough of mineral matter- Every litre of milk yielded by a cow contains a little more than 0.7% of mineral matter.  The ration should be fairly laxative  The ration should be fairly bulky (not too bulky)  The ration should contain sufficient green fodder  Avoid sudden changes in the ration  Maintain regularity in feeding  The feed must be properly prepared  Economy in labour and cost  Balanced ration  A balanced ration is a ration, which provides the essential nutrients to the animal in such proportion and amounts that are required for the proper nourishment of the particular animal for 24 hours for various physiological functions.  Importance of balanced ration  Increase in milk production and thereby net daily income  Increase milk production efficiency- more milk from the same amount of feed  Increase in rumen microbial protein synthesis- result in better functioning of the rumen TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 24 | P a g e   Increase in immune status of the animal  Decrease in the enteric methane emission  Based on fibre content, moisture & nutrients, livestock feed is classified into three: i. Green fodder- Rich in B-carotene (precursor-Vit. A) ii. Dry fodder iii. Concentrate  The forages- both green fodder & dry fodder are called as bulk feeds or roughages due to high fibre & water content  Feed contains more than 14% of moisture cannot be stored for longtime  Feedstuffs are classified into roughages and concentrates Contents Concentrate Roughages Moisture 10% Moisture and 90% Dry Dry fodder = 10-15% matter Green fodder = 60-90 % Moisture Digestibility Highly digestible Comparatively less digestible TDN more than 60% Low TDN (4.8 2 Ammoniacal N2 20% 3 Butyric acid Nil Traces Little More *TNPSC-VAS, 2020 & TNPSC-RAVS, 2019  Flieg index is commonly used method for evaluation of silage quality  Feed Block: the roughage and concentrate are processed together and compressed in a machine (TNPSC-VAS, 2023)  Urea Ensiling Technique (UET):  It is a technique for improving nutritive value of poor quality crop by-products and other unconventional feeds by dexterous imparting of non-protein nitrogenous (NPN).  Suitable for only ruminants  Treating the material with urea at the rate of 4 kg per 100 kg dry straw at 50-55% moisture level & keeping the material under anaerobic condition for at least 6 weeks Increase crude protein (from 2.49 to 7.59), decrease fibre content (42.55 to 37.82)  Ammonia treated paddy straw will improve the digestibility and palatability Difference between hay and silage S. No Items Hay Silage 1 Product Dried product Fermented product TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 34 | P a g e 2 Moisture content 12-14% 60-70% 3 Best crop Oat Maize 4 Preferred plant Leafy plant with thin stem Plant with thick stem 5 Method of Hay curing Ensiling manufacturing 6 Harvesting time  In case of crop- flowering/ Between flowering and milk stage blossom stage  In case of cereals- milk stage  In case of legumes- tender pod formation stage Hydroponic green fodder production  The word hydroponics has been derived from the Greek word viz., Hydro means 'water' and ponic means 'working'  It is the science of soilless growing of plants in nutrient rich solutions at regulated temperature and humidity  Hydroponic fodder is nutritious, palatable, succulent and highly digestible  It differs from aeroponic method which also involves growing plants without soil, but instead of growing plants in a growing medium, the roots of plants are suspended/ hung in dark chamber and periodically sprayed with nutrient rich solution  Crops cultivated: Cereal seeds (maize, bajra, oat, wheat, finger millets) & leguminous seeds (cowpea, sun hemp, horse gram)  Germination potential of seeds should be 80-85%  Seeds should be sterilized by soaking in 2% sodium hypochloride solution for 30 minutes to control formation of mould  Maize seed rate for producing hydroponic fodder is 250 g/ sq.ft. TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 35 | P a g e   Harvesting of fodder is done  On 8th day- maize, jowar, moth bean  On 6th day-horse gram  On 4th day- sun hemp, cowpea, bajra, millets  Feeding of hydroponic maize per day: Cattle- 15 kg; adult goat- 2 kg; adult sheep-1 kg  TANUVAS low-cost hydroponic device capacity- 10 Kg/ day Advantages Disadvantages Saves water- Consumes 98% less water than Poor germination conventional method Fungal attack- Aflatoxin Reduced growth time- Takes only 8 days Bleaching of leaves- due to high chlorine level Marginal land usage- Up to 1000 kg green in the water fodder from 480 sq. ft area daily Pipe clogging Constant supply- round the year Requires minimal man power and time Completely natural and organic Optimal production cost Reduce feed cost & nutritious Inhibitors/ toxic substances in livestock feed S.No Plant Anti-nutritional factors Detoxification 1 Soyabean Kunitz inhibitor (Trypsin Autoclaving (121°C/ 15 inhibitor) lbs/ 15 min) 2 Groundnut Aflatoxin (B1 aflatoxin is most Treated with NH3 or toxic) NH4OH 3 Lucerne Saponin - TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 36 | P a g e 4 Legumes Ricin (TNPSC-RAVS, 2019) Heat treatment 5 Castor Ricin/ lectin By moist heat 6 Cotton Gossypol Iron supplement or FeSO4 7 Subabool Mimosine Iron supplement or FeSO4 8 a)Sorghum, sudan grass Cyanide poisoning NaNO2 (Sodium b)Linseed, cassava Dhurrin Nitrate) c)Bitter almond Linamarin + Amygdalin Na-Thiosulphate 9 Brassicaceae family Glucosinolate Iodine supplement 10 Oat hay poisoning Nitrate poisoning 1% solution of Methylene Blue 11 Raw egg white Avidin Biotin Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI)  Established on 1 November, 1962, at Jhansi, the biodiversity hotspot for grasses  The institute was later associated with the ICAR on 1 April, 1966.  Further, the All India Coordinated Research Project on Forage Crops was created in 1970 & research is conducted through 22 Coordinated Centres  Regional Research Station at Dharwad (KA), Avikanagar (RJ), Srinagar (J&K) & Centre for Himalayan Grassland Development at Palampur (HP)  Fodder crop varieties developed at IGFRI: Bundel series of Berseem, Oats, Lucerne & Guinea grass. Napier Bajra hybrid: Swetika, IGFRI-7 & 10  Bajra: JHPM-05-2, Lucerne: Chetak, Berseem: Wardan Important nutritional deficiency diseases TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 37 | P a g e   Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamin A, D, E & K Water soluble vitamins: Vit. B & C  Vit. E & Selenium shows a synergetic effect. Ca and P act as antagonistic to Mg  Sheep is most susceptible to Cu & Co deficiency  Sheep is less prone to P deficiency due to selective grazing  Normal blood calcium level in ruminants is 8-12 mg/dl  Normal blood phosphorus level in ruminants is 4-8 mg/dl  Bone Ca: P ratio should be 2:1 Vitamin/minerals Deficiency disease Functions A (Retinol)  Nutritional roup in Growth, health of eye, moist poultry body surface.  Xeropthalmia in Anti-infective vitamin animals  Night blindness in humans D (Ergocalciferol)  Rickets in children Utilize Ca & P in bone Act as hormone  Rubbery beak development, egg shell formation  Penguin like squat posture in hens E (α-tocopherol)  Encephalomalacia Maintain brain structure (crazy chick disease) Anti-oxidant vitamin  Stiff lamb disease Anti-sterility vitamin  White muscle disease  Mulberry heart disease K (Menadione)  Haemorrhages Blood clotting mechanism  Bleeding disease (TNPSC-AAO, 2015) B1 (Thiamine)  Polyneuritis (Star- Helps in digestion TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 38 | P a g e  gazer position)  Beri-beri disease in human B2 (Riboflavin)  Curled toe paralysis Promotes growth in chicken  Clubbed down condition in chicks B3 (Niacin/ Nicotin)  Pellagra/ rough skin  Chick dermatitis- crustation at corners of  mouth & fect, fatty livers  High intake of maize in the diet of pigs  and poultry leads to Nicotinamide deficiency (TNPSC-VAS, 2020) B5 (Pantothenic acid) Goose steeping in pigs B6 (Pyridoxine) Hyperexcitability B7 (Biotin)  Fatty Liver Kidney Syndrome (FLKS) in poultry  Sudden death syndrome in broiler  Parrot beak in chicks  Spectacle eye (TNPSC- TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 39 | P a g e  RAVS, 2019) B12 (Cyanocobalamine)  Pernicious anaemia Animal protein factor chick growth factor C (Ascorbic acid)  Scurvy/ bleeding gums  Pithed frog condition in baby Diseases due to mineral deficiency and toxicity S.No Mineral deficiency or Diseases toxicity 1 Copper deficiency Steely wool/ stringy wool especially in Merino Enzoonotic neonatal ataxia (Swayback/ swing back) Salt sickness Spectacle eye in sheep Falling disease in cattle 2 Zinc deficiency Paraketosis in pigs Hyperkeratosis in cattle Swollen hock syndrome in chickens Frizzled feathers in chicks 3 Molybdenum Femoral head necrosis disease in chicken deficiency 4 Molybdenum toxicity Teartness/ peat scour in cattle 5 Manganese deficiency Perosis/ slipped tendon in chicken (TNPSC-VAS, 2020) Parrot beak condition 6 Cobalt deficiency Enzootic marasmus/ wasting disease in sheep TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 40 | P a g e  Cattle coast disease 7 Selenium toxicity Blind staggers Alkali disease Degnala disease in cattle 8 Sodium deficiency Cannibalism & feather pecking in chicks 9 Iron deficiency Piglet anaemia 10 Calcium deficiency Milk fever/ parturient paresis (occur in high yielding cows (TNPSC-VAS, 2020) after 48 hrs of parturition & characterized by hypothermia) 11 Phosphorus deficiency Pica/ depraved appetite/ allotriophaga in cattle Post parturient hemoglobinuria (TNPSC-RAVS, 2019) Deficiency occurs most commonly in animals grazing during drought seasons & house and fed on hay only (TNPSC-VAS, 2020) 12 Magnesium Lactation tetany/ grass tetany/ winter tetany/ wheat staggers/ deficiency grass staggers (TNPSC-VAS, 2020) 13 Energy deficiency Pregnancy Toxaemia or Twin Lamb Disease in pregnant (low blood glucose) ewes ketosis in cattle (TNPSC-VAS, 2023) TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 41 | P a g e  4. Reproduction in animals  Reproduction rate: the number of young ones taking birth and brought up to the stage of independent survival from an individual during its reproductive life extending between puberty and senility  Reproductive efficiency-it is a measure of capacity to reproduce by adult farm stock  Primary regulation of reproductive function lies with the brain through secretion of releasing hormones from hypothalamus  Testosterone- male sex hormone is produced mainly from interstitial cells of testis Puberty  Puberty- the stage of life in which reproductive system of the animal becomes functional  Sexual maturity- the stage of attaining full reproductive capacity  In most species puberty is reached upon attaining 50% of adult body weight  Male animal puberty is denoted by the appearance of sperm in the semen Oestrus cycle:  Heat/ oestrus is the period of sexual receptivity of females during which the female is ready to mate and initiate pregnancy  The combination of physiological events taking place starting with one oestrum (heat) and ending with the next oestrum is termed as oestrous cycle  Based on pattern of oestrus cycles, animals can be classified as polyestrus and monoestrus  Polyestrus animals breed throughout the year eg. Cattle, tropical goats. However, arrest of cyclical activity can be noticed during unfavourable seasons in some of the species eg. Sheep in temperate climate, horses & buffalo  Monoestrus animals will have only one oestrus in a season followed by cessation of TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 42 | P a g e  reproductive activity for a considerable period before next cycle eg. Bitches  Based on ovarian structure and hormonal status, oestrus cycle classified into 2 phases Phase-I: A follicular (oestrogenic)- 2 stages 1.Proestrum (2 days): (IBPS-AFO, 2018)  This marks the animal coming in heat  Development of follicles  Period of building up growth of Graffian Follicle (GF) which helps for the nourishment of ovum fluid contains hormone called “oestrogen”.  It causes changes in uterus, blood supply (high vascularity). 2.Oestrum (1 day): (RRB-SO, 2020)  This is the period of desire during which the female is ready to receive male.  “Graffian Follicle (GF) - Ripe or very turgid.  Period of GF and oestrogen dominance  A cow in heat can be bred in this phase.  Vulva becomes swollen. Vulva and Vagina - congested  Ovulation occurs at the end of at the end of this period Phase-II: Luteal (progesterone)- 2 stages 3.Metoestrum (4 days): (RRB-SO, 2018)  This is the period when the organ returns to normal non congested condition. During this period the cavity of the Graffian Follicle (GF) from which ovum has been expelled lutem.  Period of corpus lutem formation. Ovulation & bleeding occurs  It prevents the growth of Grafffian Follicle thereby arrests oestrus cycle.  It is essential for the implantation of the fertilized egg. (RRB SO-2018)  It is intimately concerned which the development of mammary gland.  Level of oestrogens in the circulation falls and progesterone level begins to rise TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 43 | P a g e 4.Diestrum (14 days):  Increase in progesterone level  Longest part of estrus cycle. Further development of uterus takes place.  If the animals have not conceived, involution of uterus takes place. Length of estrous cycle in different species Animals Proestrus Estrus Metestrus Diestrus Ovulation time (days) (hours) (days) Cow 3-4 12-18 3-4 10-14 12-24 hrs after estrous Ewe 2-3 24-36 2-3 10-12 Last 2nd day of estrous Sow 3-4 48-72 2-3 11-13 Last day of estrous Gestation Periods, Oestrous Cycle, Heat period of various animals Age at Length of Length of estrus Animals Puberty (In Gestation Periods (days) estrous phase (Heat months) Cycle Period) Cow 24-30 285 (9 months+9 days) 21 days 12-24 hours Buffalo 28-30 310 (10 months+10 days) 21 days 24 hours Sheep 9-14 145-150 (5 months-5 days) 17 days 36 hours* Goat 8-10 150-152(5months+5 days)* 19 days 48 hours Camel 36-48 391 (1 year +1 months+1 day) 10 days 6 days Swine 8-10 114 (3 months+ 3 weeks +3 days) 21 days 2-2.5 days *TNPSC-RAVS, 2019, TNPSC-VAS, 2023 Detection of females in heat  Symptoms/ signs of heat in cattle a) Anxiety, Restlessness b) Smelling and sniffing other animals c) Intermittent bellowing TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 44 | P a g e  d) Frequent urination (maturation) e) Transparent (crystal clear) mucous discharge f) Oedema/ swelling of genitalia g) Standing heat (allow mounting of other animals) last for 14-16 hrs- most reliable symptoms h) Reduction in the milk yield i) Reduced feed intake j) Seeking vicinity of males k) The tail will be in raised position.  Detection of heat in 2-3 times viz., early morning and late evening/ night as most of cows shows heat signs from 6 PM to 6 AM  Metoestral bleeding: About two days after the end of heat, cows may show a bloody mucous discharge from the vulva.  The next heat period should then occur about 19 days (21-2) after the bloody discharge.  Symptoms/ signs of heat in sheep  In sheep, breeding efficiency is relatively high under natural mating  Oestrum is relatively inconspicuous in them and normally cannot be detected in the absence of the ram  The female may seek out the male, rub neck and body against him, sniff his genitalia and rapidly shake her tail  The only real evidence of oestrus is the receptiveness of the ewe to stand quietly and allow the ram to tease and mount her  Enlargement of vulva and flow of clear mucous (often unnoticed)  Due to this difficulty, AI is not widely used in sheep  A ram can serve as many as 40 to 50 ewes  Symptoms/ signs of heat in goat TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 45 | P a g e   In goat, heat is more pronounced when compared to sheep  Does in heat become restless, pouring the ground, developed udder, swollen vulva, waggling of tail, bleating (sound) and mount other does Artificial Insemination (AI) It means depositing semen into the female reproductive tract In this method, semen with living sperms collected from the male, processed, preserved and then introduced into the female reproductive tract at the proper time with the help of suitable instructions so as to achieve conception Spallanzani- conducted first recorded research in AI with dogs Mikhali Fyodorovich Ivanov- put AI to extensive field use Sampath Kumaran- employed AI for the first time in India during 1939 at Palace Dairy Farm, Mysore IVRI started scientific study on AI in 1942 under the leadership of Bhattacharya. This marked the beginning of wide adoption of Al in our country Advantages of Al Facilitate intensive selection of male animals for breeding Enables extensive and efficient utilization of superior sires (in natural service, a sire can serve only 50-60 animals per year but under AI, a sire can serve for 1000 animals per year) Enables earlier and rapid proving of bulls through progeny testing Saves the cost of maintaining many bulls for natural service purpose Service of superior bulls are made available to many farmers Effectively eliminates diseases transmitted through coitus Semen of superior sires can be used for many years even after death Animals of unequal size can be bred through AI when natural services difficult TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 46 | P a g e  Frozen semen technology facilitates import of semen instead of breeding bulls Genetically superior bulls which are disabled or timid can be used through AI Increase the rate of conception Helps in better record keeping Facilitate many types of research activities (used for progeny testing) Disadvantages Considerable infrastructure and facilities are needed to establish as an enterprise Maintenance of frozen semen bank is not economical for a small area of operation Well trained operators are required for carrying out the processes involved Infectious diseases may spread extensively if not properly checked Improper selection of animals may adversely affect the improvement efforts If inferior bull semen is frozen and used, it causes extensive damage Possibility of human errors adversely affecting the fertility of animals. Exclusion of males from the herds can cause adverse biological consequences Some bulls semen may not freeze well Management of breeding males Maintain well body condition, balanced feeding, optimum number of services per day, better housing, exercise etc Optimum number of services/ mating per day: Bulls (1-2), Ram (1-3) Bulls over 10 years and below 3 years may be used less frequently Steps involved in Al technique a) Collection of semen from the male b) Examination of semen for quality c) Semen processing and extension. d) Packaging and preservation TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 47 | P a g e  e) Insemination or deposition of semen in the reproductive track of oestrus females a) Semen collection Semen is a suspension of spermatozoa in seminal fluid Spermatozoa are generated in the testes and stored in the epididymis Collection of semen is the first step in artificial breeding Factors known to influence semen output  Age of the bull (maximum output occurs in 5-8 years)  Season of the year (winter months are best for total sperm production)  Frequency of ejaculation (increased frequency of ejaculation result in more total sperm being obtained but with fewer sperm per collection)  Pre-ejaculation sexual preparation (this consist essentially of exciting the bull by allowing him to see, approach, sniff at the teaser and by false mounting)  Correct technical collection methods (proper conditioning of artificial vagina or electrical stimulatory equipment's) Preparation of young Bulls  Quality bull calves should be procured at 6-12 months of age (TNPSC-RAVS, 2019)  At 12 months of age the pull will be screened for freedom from diseases like vibriosis, div trichomoniasis, brucellosis, Johne's and tuberculosis  Screening for chromosomal abnormality alone improve fertility by 15%  At 24 months of age the semen will be collected and evaluated before final selection  Semen collection should be made during early morning hours before feeding  The teaser cow should be of the same breed size and colour of the bull  It is better to select a teaser cow which has gone through 2 to 3 calvings Most commonly used methods for semen collection 1. Artificial Vagina (AV) TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 48 | P a g e   Russians (Kumorov and Nagev, 1932) designed the first artificial vagina. Danish model is now used in USA, India and many other countries  It is the ideal method of semen collection which is safe for sire and the collector  It provides an environment similar to that of the vagina with a temperature and pressure similar to the natural vagina and with sufficient lubrication  The water jacket of the Artificial vagina is filled with hot water at a temperature of 45° to 50°C. It provides an inner temperature of 42°-46°C (TNPSC-VAS, 2023)  An inside temperature above 47°C may kill sperms in the ejaculate  The pressure maintained inside AV is 45-55 mm Hg  Lubricants may be, K.Y. Jelly, Sterile white vaseline jelly, White mineral oil, Tragacanth gum  Allowing one or two false mounting (mounting without allowing ejaculation) has  been found to yield better ejaculates upon collection  AV assembled is held at 45° angle from the direction of penis, and the thrust is that angle. Ejaculation takes place within 1 to 2 seconds. 2.Electro ejaculation method  The technique was first adopted in 1922 by Battelli for collection of semen from Guinea pigs  It is particularly useful for valuable bulls, which have been incapacitated for mounting due to old age or physical disabilities like sore feet  A serious of electrical impulses (10-15 volts) passed through the electrode stimulates ejaculation of semen which may be collected in a clean sterile container  Semen collected by this method are more in volume and less in concentration b)Evaluation of semen quality Semen is examined to judge its suitability for processing and usage Two types of examinations a. Preliminary evaluation: done routinely on every sample of semen collected, which TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 49 | P a g e  includes examination of colour, volume, consistency, mass activity (initial gross movements), sperm concentration, and individual motility after dilution b. Detailed evaluation (0.1 ml- 60% motility): done at certain periodicity to study the pilodinom ar suitability of a male before initiating usage for Al c)Semen extension or dilution Semen is extended with appropriate extenders or diluents to increase its volume preservability and thus its utility in breeding more females O hilo? Semen diluents in general provide buffering action against quality deterioration out of accumulation of metabolic waste products like lactic acid and provide additional nutrients for prolonged survival All extenders in general have three major constituents: i. Nutrients provided by preferably some biological fluid such as egg yolk, milk or whey, coconut milk, ii. Buffers which maintain an optimum pH like sodium citrate, TRIS buffer, iii. Anti-microbial agents like antibiotics to contract the deterioration and disease producing effect by bacterial contamination Commonly used semen extenders i. Normal saline: used when long-time preservation is not required ii. TRIS buffer iii. Whole milk extender: used for diluting goat and ram's semen iv. Whey milk v. Egg Yolk Citrate (EYC) extender: most commonly used semen extender for refrigerated preservation of bull semen gor vi. Glycerol egg yolk citrate extender: this is used for deep freezing of semen. vii. Tris egg yolk extender: commonly used for low temperature preservation. viii. Tris egg yolk glycerol extender: this is commonly used for deep freezing of semen as it contains 6-8% glycerol TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 50 | P a g e  Each dose of bull or buffalo semen packaged for freezing should contain more than 20 million sperms so that with a post thaw motility of 50% there will be around 10 millions of bactively motile sperms available at insemination Buck and ram semen at insemination should have at least 25-30 million actively motile sperms d)Semen preservation The technique of semen preservation in straws was developed in France The main principle of sperm cell preservation is to reduce the metabolic activity of sperms Chemical preservation  It is based on the principle that incorporation of metabolic inhibitors in the medium such as carbon dioxide reduces the metabolic rate  This is being adopted for room temperature preservation of semen  Media or extenders that are routinely used for room temperature preservation of semen was Coconut Milk Extender (CME), Illinois Variable Temperature Extender (IVT) and Cornell University Extender (CUE)  Room temperature preserved semen was maintaining motility up to 3-5 days Low temperature semen preservation: Decreasing rate of chemical reaction with lowering of temperature is the principle of cooling to preserve semen quality. Two types 1. Refrigeration temperature (0-4°C): usually employed for liquid semen (chilled semen) and can be used for AI only up to 2 to 3 days of collection. Fresh, liquid semen can be successfully stored for 1 to 4 days at 40°F. 2. Deep freezing (below -20°C):  Principle- cooling much below the freezing point of water so that the metabolic process are totally suspended preserving life and activity of sperm indefinitely  Freezing is usually carried out by TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 51 | P a g e   Solid CO2/ dry ice and alcohol (-79°C or -100°F)  Liquid air (-190°C)  Liquid nitrogen (-196°C or -320°F)- (TNPSC-AAO, 2015)  Liquid helium (-296°C)  Liquid nitrogen is preferred because there is no evidence of fertility deterioration with age. Fertility gradually declines in semen stored in dry ice-alcohol.  In storage container, level of liquid nitrogen should be maintained a minimum of 15 cm and above  Cooling to this temperature cause crystallization of water in sperm cells as well as in the media.  Addition of glycerol to the semen extender improves resistance of sperm to freezing/ temperature shock.  Addition of 2% fructose to the diluents improve sperms resistance to glycerol and provides nutrients  A calf born from frozen semen stored for 16 years. Semen storage  Equilibration: Before storing the diluted semen at frozen state (-196°C), the practice is to preserve it at much higher temperature (+5°C) for about 6 hrs.  The sample showing more than 60% motility are taken for test freezing  Test freezing: straw is kept in container having liquid N2 with temperature of -120° to - 130°C for 10-15 minutes  Packing systems of frozen semen viz., Ampoule method, Pellet method, Straw technique & Tupol method  Manual sealing of semen straw is done with Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) powder  Thawing means to melt or become liquid. Most widely practised temperature of 37°- TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 52 | P a g e  40°C for 30 seconds is suitable to get optimum survival of spermatozoa e) Insemination methods  Different insemination methods viz., speculum method, vaginal method and recto vaginal method. i. Recto vaginal method: in cattle (large animals) the safe and best method of insemination ii. Spectrum method: it is commonly practiced in goat and sheep (small animals) iii. Vaginal method: Here there is a risk of contamination and injury of female genitalia  Controlled investigations on best time of insemination for maximum conception were conducted by Trim Berger and Davis at Nebraska in 1943  Embryo Transfer Technology (ETT) involves production of many embryos from superior females and rearing them into progenies utilising less productive female animals. It is highly expensive and laborious and the tool is used in cloning Al of domestic animals with frozen semen Particulars Cattle Sheep Goats Swine Vol of inseminate (ml) 0.2-1 0.05-0.2 50 20-50 No. of motile sperm per 30 120-150 100-150 5000 6 inseminate (million or 10 ) Time of insemination (after 8-16 hr 10-24 hr 12-30 Every 2 days onset of estrus) during estrus Site of insemination Uterus-cervix Cervix Uterus/ cervix Uterus *In cows and ewes, cervix is the most favourable site for survival of sperms in the female genitalia, where it can remain viable for 36-48 hours (TNPSC-RAVS, 2019) *The sperm concentration of adult bull ranges from 1.8 × 109 sperm/ml (TNPSC-VAS, 2020) Parturition  It is the process of expelling the foetus once biologically determined term of intrauterine development is completed TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 53 | P a g e   The hormone required for maintenance of pregnancy and the organizer of estrus cycle if progesterone (TNPSC-AAO, 2021)  Induction of calving- shortening the gestation period to make deliveries taking place at convenience. Injecting 10-25 mg/24 hr of Dexamethasome or 20-25 mg PGF2 during last trimester  Signs of approaching parturition: maternal behaviour like nesting, leave the herd and seek isolation, anorexia, distress & mammary glands develop fully (waxing of teat) Pregnancy diagnosis  The period of pregnancy, pregnant period or gestation period is the duration of time which elapses between service and parturition  It is directly related to the economy of diary management Methods of detecting pregnancy a) Signs of pregnancy  Cessation of estrus  Increase in body weight of animals at the last half of pregnancy  The animals have the tendency to grow fat  The animal concepted tends to become sluggish in temperament and more tractable  Increases in the volume of the abdomen at the latest stage of pregnancy  Changes in the mammary gland- firm, enlarged and glossy, waxy appearance b)Symptoms of pregnancy  Per rectum examination of ovaries, uterus and uterine arteries:  Rectal palpation is the most widely used & reliable method in cattle, buffaloes and horses.  Ambidextrous palpation technique developed by Dr. Kutty is used for small ruminants TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 54 | P a g e   Per vaginal examination: vaginal wall appears dry and wrinkled c)Laboratory test  Use of ultrasonic devices and technique - wider application in small animals like sheep and swine. 90% accurate if tested after 35 to 50 days of pregnancy but involve high cost  Progesterone assay- by milk progesterone, assay can be done by 30-35 days with an accuracy of 78-90% and plasma progesterone essay provide accuracy of 80-85% if tested as early as 20-25 days  Pattern of vaginal smear, Immunological techniques  Foetal electrocardiography  Barium chloride test (1% 5-6 ml in urine)- white precipitation indicates non-pregnancy  Pregnant mare serum test and Scanning Attributes for ideal technique of pregnancy diagnosis  Simple and easily carried out  Cheap and commonly available  Effective especially to detect yearly pregnancy  Devoid of inducing damage to either dam or foetus Sex Sorted Semen (SSS) technology  This technology involves separation of sperm cells in such a way that female calf producing sperm cells predominate in the semen  Theoretically, SSS semen of high quality bulls is likely to give birth to 80-90% female calves  It is an ideal technology for overcoming the stray cattle menace peculiar to India  SSS technology is well standardized, patented and commercialized in Europe, US and Japan  In cattle semen, the sperms with the X-chromosome (potentially produce female TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 55 | P a g e  offspring) carry more DNA (3.8%) than that in the sperms with Y-chromosome (potentially produces male offspring).  A fluorescent dye is added to the semen so that the X-chromosome sperm cells glow brighter under laser beam and automatic sorter is used to separate it  First male calf named Shreyas, born using sexed semen at frozen semen bull station at Haringhata, West Bengal on January 1st, 2011  Advantages  Production of high-pedigreed and less disease prone offspring  Help in genetic development of indigenous breeds  Optimization of resources by the farmers  Reduction in dystokia cases as female calves are easier to deliver because of smaller size  Disadvantages  Conception rate is less (10-15%)  Increased cost of services (Rs. 1500-2000 per dose)  Big need for standardization  Sperm concentration is far less (1/5th) than in conventional semen straw Terminologies related to reproduction  Fertility: ability of animal to reproduce. Indicate whether the animal capable of producing more offspring in the same pregnancy or frequencies of pregnancies  Fecundity: is the potential for production of more number of offspring in each pregnancy, irrespective of whether they survive or not  Prolificacy: ability to produce more number of offspring in one pregnancy with most of them being reared to adulthood  Non-return rate: proportion of animals that, after breeding, have not shown heat signs at the expected normal interval TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 56 | P a g e   It gives somewhat accurate indication of conception  Animals that were inseminated once and did not come again for a second insemination are termed as a non-return case  Conception rate: proportion of animals conceived out of the bred and confirmed through pregnancy verification methods. Conception rate in India is 35%  Number of services per conception: actual number of services required by female to settle and is calculated as a measure of breeding efficiency  Age at puberty: the age at which the young female shows the first heat  Service period: the interval from calving till the animal become fit to for services (first post- partum heat)  Settling interval (parturition to conception interval): it is the interval from delivery to successful service assessed through pregnancy verification done afterwards. It is a combined index of service period and conception rate during the post-partum period  Inter-calving interval: interval between successful parturitions  Percentage of pregnancies: proportion of animals in pregnancy among total breedable population at any movement of time  Litter size: multiple birth eg, twinning, triplets etc  Stillbirth: expulsion of dead foetus at the time of parturition (means it completes gestation period)  Premature birth: the expulsion of a live foetus before completion of the gestation period  Abortion: expulsion of dead foetus before completion of the gestation period. Main cause a. Cattle : Brucella abortus b. Sheep, Goat : Campylobacter foetus (Vibriosis) c. Swine : Leptospira  Trichomoniasis foetus in cattle cause abortion in first trimester of pregnancy Some important hormones and their functions TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 57 | P a g e S.No Hormones Gland secreting Functions 1 Growth hormone (GH) Anterior pituitary Stimulate growth of body 2 Prolactin Anterior pituitary Stimulate milk secretion 3 Leutinizing hormone Anterior pituitary Stimulate testosterone synthesis in (LH) Leydig cells of testes, stimulate ovulation, formation of CL & maintain progesterone secretion from CL 4 Follicle Stimulating Anterior pituitary Growth of follicles in the ovaries hormone (FSH) 5 Melanocyte Intermediate lobe Increased deposition of melanin stimulating hormone pituitary 6 Oxytocin Posterior pituitary It stimulates milk ejection (milk let down hormone), contraction of the uterus during parturition 7 Calcitonin Thyroid Promote deposition of calcium in the bones & decrease blood calcium level 8 Parathormone (PTH) Parathyroid gland Increase blood calcium level 9 Aldosterone Adrenal cortex Increase renal Na+ reabsorption & K+ secretion & H+ secretion 10 Catecholamines Adrenal medulla Epinephrine is known as 3F hormone (epinephrine, (Fright, Fight, Flight) or emergency norepinephrine, hormone. Responsible for holding up of dopamine) milk 11 Testosterone Testes (Leydig Promote development of male cells) reproductive system & male secondary sexual characteristics, sex drive (libido) in males 12 Estrogen Ovary (granulosa Responsible for heat estrus behavior, cells of Graffian development of female secondary sexual follicle) characteristics, responsible for growth of duct system of mammary glands 13 Progesterone (TNPSC- Ovary (Corpus Known as Pregnancy hormone, prepares TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 58 | P a g e  RAVS, 2019) Luteum) uterine for acceptance of a fertilized ovum or embryo, maintains pregnancy, responsible for alveolar growth of mammary gland, withdrawal of this hormone triggers lactogenesis (TNPSC- VAS, 2023) 14 Ghrelin Gastrointestinal Hunger stimulant (hunger hormone) tract (GIT) 15 Gastrin Stomach Stimulates secretion of gastric acid (HCL) 16 Leptin Adipose tissue Inhibits appetite 17 Erythroprotein Kidney Increase RBCs production 18 Atrial natriuretic Heart Increase renal Na+ secretion & K+ peptide (ANP) reabsorption, reduce blood pressure 19 Insulin Pancreas Decrease blood glucose level 20 Glucogen Pancreas Increase blood glucose level 21 Vit D3 (act as Synthesized in Absorption of Ca through intestine hormone) skin on exposure to sunlight TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 59 | P a g e  5. Milk: composition, pasteurization Milk and milk secretion  Milk is the lacteal secretion of the mammary glands of animals  Milk is obtained generally from cow/buffalo during the period of at least 72hours after calving or until the milk becomes colostrum free.  Lactation period- is the period from the time animal gives birth to a young one till she goes dry  Milk secretion- synthesis of milk by the epithelial cells and the passage of milk from the cytoplasm of the cells into the alveolar cells.les  Lactogenesis- initiation of milk secretion (Prolactin)  Galactopoiesis- maintenance of lactation  Milk ejection- milk let down (Oxytocin)  Pandharpuri buffalo have multiple milk let down capacity  Involution- shrinking of an organ to its normal size after enlargement i.e., of alveolar cells  Milk secretion totally stops at about 35 hrs after the last milking  Milk vein of animals are filled with blood.  Milk is produced in Alveolic cells and stored in Lumen.  Milk synthesis takes place inside the epithelial cells lining the alveoli  Three times a day milking increases the milk production by 15-25%, but only 5-10% of this is due to better feeding and management  Residual milk:  It is the amount of milk left in the udder after a normal milking.  It can be obtained only after injection of oxytoxin.  13.9% of residual milk in cows milking only once & 17.8% in cow with milking interval of 10 and 14 hrs TRICHY TNPSC INSTITUTE – TTI , 7/4 Srinivasapuram, Tennur, Trichy – 17 Mobile – 7448931932 60 | P a g e   Older & low producer cows have higher percentages of residual milk than first calf heifers and high producer  Cows with high percentage of residual milk have a lower persistency of lactation Milk constituents and emulsion types S.No Milk constituents Form in which they exist in the milk 1 Fat Emulsion 2 Casein protein Colloidal suspension 3 Whey protein Colloidal solution 4 Lactose True solution 5 Ash Partially colloidal and partly true solution S.No