Educational Innovation and Introduction to Foreign Language Educational Research

EDUCATIONAL INNOVATION AND INTRODUCTION TO FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Mr. D. Salvador Montaner Villalba UNIVERSITY MASTER IN SECONDARY AND SIXTH FORM TEACHING, VOCATIONAL TRAINING AND LANGUAGE TEACHING Este material es de uso exclusivo para los alumnos de la Universidad Internacional de V...

EDUCATIONAL INNOVATION AND INTRODUCTION TO FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Mr. D. Salvador Montaner Villalba UNIVERSITY MASTER IN SECONDARY AND SIXTH FORM TEACHING, VOCATIONAL TRAINING AND LANGUAGE TEACHING Este material es de uso exclusivo para los alumnos de la Universidad Internacional de Valencia. No está permitida la reproducción total o parcial de su contenido ni su tratamiento por cualquier método por aquellas personas que no acrediten su relación con la Universidad Internacional de Valencia, sin autorización expresa de la misma. Edita Universidad Internacional de Valencia University master in Secondary and sixth form teaching, vocational training and language teaching Educational innovation and introduction to foreign language educational research 6 ECTS Mr. D. Salvador Montaner Villalba Key Link of interest Example Terms highlighted in orange are explained in the GLOSSARY Important Índice UNIT 1. INNOVATION AND RESEARCH IN EDUCATION........................................................... 7 1.1. Presentation................................................................................................. 7 1.2. Educational innovation..................................................................................... 8 1.2.1. What is educational innovation?..................................................................... 9 1.2.2. Research on educational innovation................................................................ 9 1.2.3. Characteristics of educational innovation......................................................... 10 1.2.4. Types of educational innovation.................................................................... 11 1.2.5. Educational innovation as a process................................................................ 11 1.3. Educational research....................................................................................... 12 1.3.1. What is educational research?....................................................................... 12 1.3.2. Types of educational research...................................................................... 14 1.4. Professional development of the teacher of English as a foreign language............................ 18 1.4.1. Professional associations........................................................................... 19 1.4.2. Specialized publications............................................................................. 20 GLOSARIO............................................................................................................. 21 ENLACES DE INTERÉS............................................................................................... 25 BIBLIOGRAFÍA........................................................................................................ 27 References...................................................................................................... 27 Suggested reading.............................................................................................. 38 Specific reference. English................................................................................ 38 Educational innovation.................................................................................... 38 5 Unit 1 Innovation and research in education Specific learning goals Learning and identifying concepts, models, methods and techniques on educational innovation and research. Recognizing the problems concerning the teaching and learning of our subject, as well as the possible solutions for them. Being able to critically analyze the performance of teaching, good practices and guidance by using quality indicators. 1.1. Presentation Nowadays, innovation is crucial within the field of education. The subject “Educational Innovation and Introduction to Foreign Language Educational Research” wishes to provide all trainee teachers in this master’s degree with knowledge about the different educational innovations and projects on how to improve the teaching task, firstly, in general terms, and, secondly, with regard to English as a foreign language in Compulsory Secondary Education, Baccalaureate, Vocational Training and Official Schools of Languages. 7 Unit 1. Innovation and research in education For a young and inexperienced teacher, the task of teaching becomes a greater challenge every day. This challenge implies that they have to know the teaching-learning process and its resources thoroughly to keep the students’ attention and to motivate them at the same time, especially teenagers at Compulsory Secondary Education and Baccalaureate. For this reason, teaching innovation has become one of the most important tools, being instrumental that the teacher is able to design educational models which facilitate the development of innovative educational approaches. Therefore, it is convenient for trainee teachers to work on these approaches with an innovative attitude, in order to research on their own teaching task and, later, to know how to improve it. At some point, students of this master will have to design their own syllabus and didactic units, determining the models of innovative teaching, assessing and research they find most useful for their English lessons. It is then that the teaching process becomes not only a personal challenge but also a professional one. This subject will be developed by means of the top-down method, that is, we will begin by explaining general considerations on educational innovation and research (Unit 1); secondly, we will continue with specific, deeper topics on the teaching of English as a foreign language using innovative methodologies (Unit 2); and finally, we will deal with Educational research, going over the different paradigms, techniques and tools at our disposal (Unit 3). 1.2. Educational innovation Nowadays, scholars agree that both innovation and research (I+R) play a very important role not only in society but also, in general terms, in education and in foreign language teaching. And, more specifically, both innovation and research can also be applied in English language teaching. Additionally, the use of ICT in education and, specifically, in English language teaching must play a key role in both innovation and research, to ELT itself and within the CLIL classroom or any other of the latest methodologies in education, which can also be applied in ELT. Hence, a rather interesting relationship between ICT and educational research arises. Links of interest Blog Innovación Educativa, by Ángel Fidalgo. https://innovacioneducativa.wordpress.com/ Defining Educational Innovation. https://innovacioneducativa.wordpress.com/2017/03/13/consolidacion-de-la-innovacioneducativa-que-es-y-como-se-puede-conseguir International Journal of Technology and Educational Innovation. http://www.revistas.uma.es/index.php/innoeduca 8 Educational innovation and introduction to foreign language educational research 1.2.1. What is educational innovation? Many experts have given their perception or definition of what educational innovation is. The most representative Spanish authors are Jaume Carbonell, who is mentioned in Cañal de León (2002, pp. 11-12), Imbernón (1996) and Juan Escudero, who is cited in Pascual (1988). In the English language, it is worth mentioning relevant authors such as Schneider and McDonald (2006), van den Berg and Ros (1999) and Caine and Caine (1997), who have published rather interesting works on educational innovation. Fidalgo Blanco and Sein-Echaluce (2016) are two contemporary authors who have written about this matter. These authors explain that educational innovation should be considered from three different points of view: the technological, the social and the educational perspectives. They presented a number of studies, accepted in this track of TEEM’16 (Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality), under two key aspects: 1. The acquisition of competences, mentioning cooperation. 2. The use of technologies (specific software and e-learning platforms, giving special relevance to massive open online courses). 1.2.2. Research on educational innovation This section is based on the work of Ellis and Fouts (1993). At this point, a general overview on research on educational innovation will be given, so that students can get familiar with concepts such as quantitative and qualitative data in education and, more specifically, when researching within the English language teaching classroom in order to innovate. Rather interesting works have been written producing relevant discussion on quantitative and qualitative data related to the field of education. Authors such as Berliner (2002), Erikson and Gutiérrez (2002) and St. Pierre (2002) have questioned the National Research Council focus on positivist principles on educational research in an increasingly postmodern world. Before discussing on educational innovation, it is essential that students are aware of what “innovation” is, not only in general terms but also in the educational field. Ellis and Fouts (1993) talk about the relationship between “innovation” and “novelty”, and they refer to the Oxford English Dictionary (1971), which defines the term “innovation” as the “introduction of novelties”. Innovation seems to be the key aspect within the educational context. In the 21st Century, both teachers and parents express their desire to be on the cutting edge of things, and are up to date about the latest trends. Ellis and Fouts (1993) also refer to the term “evidence-based education”, which signifies empiricallybased findings, particularly those resulting from random assignment of subjects to treatment groups. Empirical evidence is indeed the corner stone. According to the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), empirical evidence “means research that involves the application of rigorous, systematic and objective procedures to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to educational activities and programs” (No Child Left Behind Act of 2001). 9 Unit 1. Innovation and research in education As specified by Ellis and Fouts (1993), the US Department of Education allows officially randomized trials or true experimental methods as the most definitive means of determining the value of teaching and learning procedures. Those who advocate for evidence-based education also consider other types of methods such as quasi-experimental group studies, pre-post comparisons, correlational studies, case studies, and anecdotal evidence. The authors, who are in favour of evidence-based education research, believe that this kind of research is the only one which can restore respectability to research findings in education, whereas, on the other hand, their critics state the lack of “real-world” authenticity to be found in such results. Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) argue for mixed-methods research, which they call “a third paradigm”. They define it as “the class of research where the researcher mixes or combines quantitative or qualitative research techniques, methods, approaches, concepts or language into a single study” (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004, p. 17). Basically, their premise seems to be taking into account the reliability found in quantitative approaches (the statistical results that confirm similar results in hypothetical repeated trials) and the validity found in qualitative approaches with their careful and thick descriptions of conditions found in a particular setting. 1.2.3. Characteristics of educational innovation This section is based on the works of Blanco and Mesina (2000), Juan Escudero (in Pascual, 1998), Berman and McLaughlin (1976), and van den Berg and Ros (1999). In order to explain the many aspects of educational innovation, we need to take into account the point of view of different experts. Blanco and Messina (2000) state that one of the most important problems about innovation lies on the lack of a theoretical framework which is developed enough for us to identify what is or is not innovative within the educational field, whereas Escudero (in Pascual, 1998), on the other hand, explains some characteristics which, according to him, can approach us to the nature of the educational innovation. We shall also highlight the work of van den Berg and Ros (1999). The issue of the conditions under which innovations appear is the core of this paper. They state that objective conditions such as organizational structure, technological possibilities, and budget play a rather important role in the innovation process. However, both the teachers’ concerns and the role that these concerns play in the innovation process deserve particular attention. Concerns are introduced as indicators of the subjective realities of teachers and, at times, as the expression of ambivalence with regard to the innovation in question. After giving an overall overview of the most relevant theories on educational innovation, van den Berg and Ros (1999) prove that more attention must be paid to the involvement of teachers and, consequently, to their concerns related with such innovations as, for example, adaptive teaching (an approach aimed at achieving a common instructional goal with learners considering their individual differences). This need is shown on the basis of the research material which the authors have collected over the past few years. The data shows that teachers express different types of concerns at different stages in the innovation process. Therefore, clear tune-ups of innovation policy to those (probably subjective) factors influencing the implementation process are necessary. 10 Educational innovation and introduction to foreign language educational research Some factors to be considered are: The framework of phases in the innovation. The scale of the innovation. The individual orientations of the teachers involved in the innovation. The match between the orientations of teachers and the concerns elicited by the innovation. 1.2.4. Types of educational innovation On the one hand, it is important to mention that the educational innovations which are being constantly used not only in Spain but also in other countries are not similar to one another by any means. The aims, contents, preferred themes, and processes of the various educational innovations are different depending, basically, on the learners’ needs. Therefore, it is worth mentioning that it is not easy to establish a clear typology of educational innovation. On the other hand, one of the most well-known authors in educational innovation, Rivas (2000, 1996), proposes a typology of educational innovation which springs from its own nature, and from the analysis of its properties. The contributions of Huberman and Miles (2002), Havelock and Huberman (1980), and McMullen (1978) are worth mentioning too. 1.2.5. Educational innovation as a process Innovation can be considered as an intentional and systematic process. However, innovation can take place in different ways; several authors who made a careful analysis of innovative educational experiences that had already taken place identified three kinds of process models (Huberman, 1973; Havelock and Huberman, 1980): 1. Research and development model. 2. Social interaction model. 3. Problem-solving model. The research and development model considers the process as a rational sequence of phases, through which an invention is discovered, developed and finally spread among the users. Innovation is not analysed from the perspective of the user, who is expected to assume a passive role; likewise, research is not a group of exact answers to specific human problems, but is considered as a combination of data and theories which are later transformed into ideas for useful products and services in the development phase. Knowledge is produced massively, and it is intended to widen the most useful types of it. In the social interaction model, the main concern is dealing with the spread of the innovation, the transmission of messages from individual to individual and from system to system; it gives importance to interpersonal networks where information is exchanged, and where leadership, opinion, 11 Unit 1. Innovation and research in education personal contact and social integration are provided. The general idea is that each member of the system becomes aware of it through a process of social communication with their colleagues. In some educational systems, this strategy consists of persuading a teacher, head of studies, pedagogical coordinator, etc. of the usefulness of the new practices or procedures, as well as providing other teachers with ways of making contact with innovative professionals. The problem-solving model focuses on the learner that receives the innovation. This model is based on the idea that the innovation satisfies the learners’ educational needs. Consequently, the process goes from the problem to the diagnosis, then to a trial of the innovation and, finally, to the adoption of the innovation. It frequently needs the intervention of an external agent of change who advises the users on possible solutions and strategies. Nevertheless, collaboration focused on the users of the innovation (learners) is fundamental, involving a collaborative approach to work. 1.3. Educational research 1.3.1. What is educational research? Educational research refers to the systematic collection and analysis of data which have to do with education. Research might imply a variety of methods and involve various aspects of education such as student learning, teaching methodologies, teacher training, and classroom dynamics. Academic scholars such as Anderson and Arsenault (1998), who are experts on educational research, generally agree that research should be systematic and rigorous. Nevertheless, there is less agreement about specific standards, criteria and research procedures (Lodico et al., 2010; Kincheloe and Berry, 2004). Educational researchers may analyse several varieties of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy. Methods might be extracted considering these disciplines (Yates, 2004). 12 Educational innovation and introduction to foreign language educational research Characteristics of educational research Since it is important that the students of this master’s degree become aware of the concept of educational research, we will now explain some of the most relevant characteristics of it. For this purpose, we will follow the work of Anderson and Arsenault (1998), who outlined ten aspects of educational research: 1. Educational research tries to solve a problem. 2. Research implies gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose. 3. Research is based on observable experience or empirical evidence. 4. Research demands accurate observation and description. 5. Research generally uses carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis. 6. Research makes an emphasis on the development of generalizations, principles or theories which will help in understanding, prediction and/or control. 7. Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology; technical skill in collecting and analysing the data. 8. Research tries to find an unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the procedures previously used. 9. Research is a deliberate and unhurried task that is directional but often refines the problem or questions as it is carried out. 10. Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons who are interested in the problem. Approaches of educational research Acoording to Lodico, Spaulding and Voegtle (2010), there are two main approaches in educational research. The first one is a basic approach, known as academic research approach. The second one is applied research or contract research approach. Both approaches have different purposes which influence the nature of the respective research. 1. Basic or academic approach The basic or academic research approach focuses on the search for truth (Anderson and Arsenault, 1998) or on the development of educational theory. According to Lodico et al. (2010), researchers who follow the academic approach design studies which can test, change or improve educational theories. Generally, these researchers are affiliated with an academic institution and perform research as part of their graduate or doctoral work. 13 Unit 1. Innovation and research in education 2. Applied or contract research approach The search of information which can be directly put into practice is called applied or contractual research. Researchers in this field attempt to work out solutions to existing educational problems. The applied approach is much more useful, since it strives to get information which will directly influence practice. Applied researchers are commissioned by a sponsor and they are responsible for addressing the needs presented by this employer. The aim of this kind of research, according to Lodico, Spaulding and Voegtle (2010), is to determine the applicability not only of educational theory but also of the principles which test hypothesis within concrete settings. 1.3.2. Types of educational research The basis for educational research is the scientific method (Lodico, Spaulding and Voegtle, 2010). The scientific method uses direct questions and manipulation of variables to systematically find information about the teaching and learning process. In this scenario, questions are answered by analysing data which are collected specifically with this purpose (Anderson and Arsenault, 1998). Hypotheses are written and subsequently proved or disapproved by data that lead to the creation of new hypotheses. The two main types of data that are utilized under this method are qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research Qualitative research uses data which is descriptive in nature. The most relevant tools that educational researchers employ in collecting qualitative data include: observations, interviews, document analysis and that of participants’ products such as journals, images or blogs (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2011). Types of qualitative research 1. Case study A case study is a report about a person, group, or situation that has been studied. If it is about a group, it describes the behaviour of the group as a whole. Case studies can be produced by following a formal research method, and they are likely to appear in formal research venues, such as journals and professional conferences. The “case” being studied may be an individual, organization, event, or action, existing in a specific time and place. For example, clinical science has produced well-known case studies of both individuals and clinical practices. Nevertheless, when the “case” is used in an abstract sense, as in a claim, a proposition, or an argument, it can be subjected to many research methods other than case study research. Case studies might involve both qualitative and quantitative research methods. 14 Educational innovation and introduction to foreign language educational research 2. Ethnography Ethnography is the systematic study of people and cultures. The researcher explores cultural phenomena and observes society from the perspective of the subject of the study. The resulting field study or case report reflects the knowledge and system of meanings of a cultural group. The typical ethnography is a holistic study that includes a brief history as well as an analysis of the terrain, the climate, and the habitat. It should be reflexive, make a substantial contribution to the understanding of the social life of humans, have an aesthetic impact on the reader, and express a credible reality. An ethnography records all observed behaviour and describes all symbol-meaning relations, utilizing concepts which avoid causal explanations. 3. Phenomenological research The phenomenological research describes the experience of several individuals and its meaning, being this experience a conscious process in human beings, where each participant is trying to make sense of their personal and social life, whereas the researcher is trying to make sense of the participants. 4. Narrative research It emerged as a discipline from the broader field of qualitative research in the early 20th Century. Narrative analysis uses texts, such as stories, autobiographies, journals, field notes, letters, conversations, interviews, family stories, as well as photos, and life experiences, as the units of analysis to research and understand the way people create meaning in their lives through narratives. Narrative inquiry has been used as an instrument for analysis in the fields of cognitive science, sociology and education studies, among others. Other approaches include the development of quantitative methods and tools based on the large volume capture of fragmented anecdotal material. Narrative research challenges the philosophy behind quantitative data-gathering and questions the idea of “objective” data; however, it has been criticized for not being “theoretical enough.” 5. Historical research Comparative historical research is a method of social science which analyses historical events to give explanations that are valid beyond a particular time and place, either by direct comparison to other historical events, theory building, or reference to the present day. Generally, it involves comparisons of social processes across times and places. It overlaps with historical sociology. This form of research may use any of several theoretical orientations. It is distinguished by the types of questions it asks, not by the theoretical framework that it uses. 15 Unit 1. Innovation and research in education Quantitative research Following Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2011), and Lodico, Spaulding and Voegtle (2010), quantitative research uses numerical data and is based on the assumption that numbers will describe a single reality. Statistics are often applied to find relationships between variables. Types of quantitative research 1. Experimental research Experimental research takes place mostly in laboratories in the context of a basic research approach. Its main advantage is that it provides the opportunity to identify cause-andeffect relationships. The researcher manipulates independent variables (for instance, type of treatment, teaching method, communication strategy) and measures dependent variables (anxiety level, English comprehension, satisfaction) in order to establish cause-and-effect relationships between them. 2. Single-subject research Single-subject research consists of a group of research methods that are used extensively in experimental analysis of behaviour and applied behaviour analysis with both human and non-human participants. The main methods (Kennedy, 2005) in this type of research are: A-B-A-B designs, multi-element designs, multiple-baseline designs, repeated acquisition designs, brief experimental designs and combined designs. These methods constitute the heart of data collection and the analytic code of behaviour analysis. Behaviour analysis is data driven, inductive, and not inclined to hypothetic-deductive methods (Chiese, 2004). 3. Causal-comparative research Here researchers attempt to determine the cause or the consequences of differences which already exist between or among groups of individuals. According to Lodico et al. (2006), some of its most representative characteristics are: – It attempts to identify cause-and-effect relationships. – It involves two or more group variables. – It involves making comparisons. – It cannot manipulate independent variables. 16 Educational innovation and introduction to foreign language educational research 4. Meta-analysis A meta-analysis (Lodico et al. 2010) is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies. The basic fact is that there is a common truth behind all conceptually similar scientific studies, which, however, has been measured with a certain margin of error in individual studies. Its purpose is to use approaches from statistics to derive a pooled estimate closest to the unknown common truth based on how this error is perceived. In essence, all existing methods yield a weighted average from the results of the individual studies and what differs is the manner in which these weights are placed and also the way in which the uncertainty is computed. In addition to providing an estimate of the unknown common truth, meta-analysis has the capacity to contrast results from different studies and identify patterns among study results, sources of disagreement among those results, or other interesting relationships that may come to light in the context of multiple studies. Combination of methods There is a new discussion among experts that these derivatives of the scientific method are far too reductionist in nature (Kincheloe, 2004). As educational research covers other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, science and philosophy and it refers to work done in a wide variety of contexts (Yates, 2004), it is proposed that researchers should make use of multiple research approaches and theoretical constructs. This may imply using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods as well as common methodology from the fields mentioned above. In social research, this phenomenon is referred to as triangulation (Gorard, 2004). Since educational issues are of many different sorts and logical types, it is to be expected that quite different kinds of research should be brought into play depending on the occasion. The question, therefore, is not whether research into teaching should be conducted by means of quantitative measures (because they are considered ”objective”) or qualitative measures (as they are thought to be more ”insightful”), but what kind of research can sensibly be used to look into each particular aspect of teaching (Woods and Barrow, 2006, p. 175). Types of combined methods There are basically two different types of combined methods: 1. Action research Action research aims to solve an immediate problem or a reflective process of progressive problem, and is led by individuals working in teams or as part of a “community practice” to improve the way they address issues and solve these problems. There are two types of action research: participatory and practical. 17 Unit 1. Innovation and research in education Denscombe (2010) writes that an action research strategy’s goal is to solve a particular problem and to produce guidelines for best practice. Action research involves actively participating to change a situation, often through an existing organization, whilst simultaneously conducting research. Action research can also be undertaken by large organizations or institutions, assisted or guided by professional researchers, with the aim of improving their strategies, practices and knowledge of the environments within which they practice. As designers and stakeholders, researchers work with others to propose new courses of action to help their community improve its work practices. 2. Programme evaluation Programme evaluation is a systematic method for collecting, analysing, and using information to answer questions about projects, policies and programmes, particularly about their effectiveness and efficiency. In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know whether the programmes they are funding, implementing, voting for, receiving or objecting to are producing the intended effect. While programme evaluation focuses around this definition, other important considerations are often how much the programme costs per participant, how the programme could be improved, whether the programme is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the programme’s goals are appropriate and useful (Shackman, 2012). Evaluators help to answer these questions, but the best way to do so is for the evaluation to be a joint project between them and those evaluated. Programme evaluations can involve both quantitative and qualitative methods of social research. People who do programme evaluation come from many different backgrounds, such as sociology, psychology, economics, social work, and public policy. Some graduate schools also have specific training programmes for this type of evaluation. 1.4. Professional development of the teacher of English as a foreign language Nowadays, to become a good teacher of English as a foreign language it is very important to be an active member of the community and to participate in different associations (either related to ELT or to the application of ICT in foreign language teaching), as well as to read specific educational magazines related to ELT and/or educational technology and its use in ELT. 18 Educational innovation and introduction to foreign language educational research 1.4.1. Professional associations Links of interest IATEFL (https://www.iatefl.org/). The International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language is one of the most thriving communities of ELT teachers in the world. Special interest groups (SIGs) have been created within the association with the purpose of giving teachers the chance to share knowledge and best practice in key areas of English language teaching and learning. Some SIGs are Business English, ESOL, Learner Autonomy, Learning Technologies, Teacher Development, Young Learners and Teenagers, etc. Links of interest TESOL-SPAIN (http://www.tesol-spain.org/en/, Teachers of English to Students of Other Languages in Spain). TESOL-SPAIN was founded in 1977 as an independent, non-profit making Spanish association of English language teachers. Nowadays, TESOL-SPAIN is a nation-wide organization with a membership that represents all sectors of English language teaching in the country. TESOL-SPAIN is an associate member of two international teacher associations: TESOL Inc. and IATEFL. TESOL-SPAIN is also strongly connected with local teachers’ associations in Spain and abroad. Links of interest APAVAC (http://apavac.blogspot.com.es/). APAVAC stands for Associació de Professors d'Anglès de València, Alacant i Castelló. The aim of this association is to share experiences, exchange materials and encourage further training with conferences, lectures and debates and mainly to become the voice of teachers of English working in the Valencian region. Other similar associations are CETA (Cordoba English Teachers Association), GRETA (Granada English Teachers Association), APAC (Associació de Professors d'Anglès de Catalunya), etc. Links of interest EUROCALL (www.eurocall-languages.org) stands for European Association of Computer Assisted Language Learning. Its mission is to inform and train its members in issues related to the use of ICT in language teaching. This association operates in the European territory. Links of interest Asociación Enseñanza Bilingüe (www.ebspain.es), addressed to those teachers of English who are interested in bilingual and plurilingual education. Links of interest AESLA (Asociación Española de Lingüística Aplicada, http://www.aesla.org.es/es), for those teachers of English who want to do PhD and further research in different disciplines related to applied linguistics (CALL, language acquisition, etc.). 19 1.4.2. Specialized publications Links of interest IATEFL Magazine (https://www.iatefl.org/resources/iatefl-voices-266). IATEFL Voices is published online six times a year. This e-magazine reflects the needs and experience of the members of IATEFL. Every issue contains: Feature articles on practical and theoretical aspects of English language teaching. Regular columns. ELT materials. Book reviews. Practical activities. IATEFL and ELT news. Links of interest TESOL-SPAIN (http://www.tesol-spain.org/en/pages/22/publish-in-our-newsletter.html). The TESOL-SPAIN Newsletter is a refereed publication aimed primarily at teachers working in various educational sectors in Spain. It welcomes contributions relating mainly to aspects of life in the classroom. Links of interest EL GAZETTE (www.elgazette.com). EL Gazette includes sections such as Language news (relevant development in ELT, or on how English language issues impact on politics around the world), Higher education news, Market reports (on ELT and international education, by country or market sector), Teaching matters (features on a broad range of subjects within ELT), Book reviews (ELT textbooks and course books), EL People (interviews with leaders and managers in ELT), etc. Links of interest RAEL (Revista Electrónica de Lingüística Aplicada, http://www.aesla.org.es/ojs/index.php/ RAEL/issue/view/38). Interesting for those teachers who want to publish academic papers on applied linguistic issues. Legislative Annex The detail of the educational legislation currently in force, including the corresponding links to the Official State Gazette (BOE), can be consulted in the document "Legislative Annex". It also presents, succinctly, the subjects related to the area that are present in the current official curricula. Glosario Action research Action research is either research initiated to work out an immediate problem or a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals collaborating with others in teams or as part of a “community of practice” in order to improve the way they address issues and solve problems. There are two types of action research: participatory and practical. Assessment Assessment in education is the systematic process of documenting and utilizing empirical data on knowledge, skill, attitudes and beliefs to refine programs and improve student learning. Assessment data can be obtained from directly examining learners’ work in order to assess the achievement of learning outcomes, or it can be based on data from which one can make inferences about learning. The word “assessment” came into use in the educational context after the Second World War. Case study A case study is a report about a person, group, or situation that has been researched. Case studies can be produced by following a formal research method. These case studies are likely to appear in formal research venues, such as journals and professional conferences. The resulting body of “case study research” has long had a relevant place in many disciplines, including psychology, anthropology, sociology, political science, education, clinical science, social work, and administrative science. Connectivism Connectivism is a learning hypothesis which focuses on the role of social and cultural context. In this sense, connectivism proposes to see knowledge’s structure as a network and learning as a process of pattern recognition. Connectivism is often associated with Vygotsky’s “zone of proximal development” (ZPD). Content and language integrated learning Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) is a methodology similar to content-based instruction. It is an approach for learning content through an additional language (foreign or second), thus teaching both the subject and the language. Constructivism Constructivism is a philosophical viewpoint about the nature of knowledge. Its two major representatives are Piaget, who focused on how human beings construct meaning out of the interaction of their experiences and ideas, and Vygotsky, whose views centred on human development in a social context. 21 Glossary Cooperative learning Cooperative learning is an educational approach whose purpose is to organize classroom tasks into academic and social learning experiences. Students must work in groups to complete activities collectively toward academic aims. The teacher’s role is to facilitate students’ learning. Everyone succeeds when the group succeeds. Educational innovation It is the incorporation of something new into the existing educational reality, with the aim of improving education practice as a whole. Educational innovations can affect any of the elements in the curriculum, which means that when one element is innovated, others must be adapted, as well as the interrelationships among them, in order to keep an inner coherence. Educational research Educational research refers to the systematic collection and analysis of data related to the field of education. Research may involve a variety of methods and imply various aspects of education, including student learning, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics. Educational researchers may draw upon a variety of disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, anthropology and philosophy. Evaluation Evaluation is a systematic determination of a subject’s merit, worth and significance, utilizing criteria established by a set of standards. Evaluation aids an organization, program, project or any other intervention or initiative to assess any aim, realizable concept or proposal, or any alternative, to help in decision-making; or to ascertain the degree of achievement or value related to aims and results of any such action that has been fulfilled. Evidence-based education Evidence-based education is an approach to all aspects of education—from policy-making to classroom practice—in which the methods used are based on significant and reliable evidence derived from experiments. It aims to apply the best available evidence, gained from the scientific method, to educational decision making. Flipped classroom Flipped classroom is an educational strategy and a type of blended learning that reverses the traditional learning environment by delivering instructional content, often online, outside of the classroom. It moves tasks, including those usually considered as homework, into the classroom. Students watch online lectures, take part in discussions, or carry out research at home, and engage in concepts in the classroom with the aid of the teacher. The flipped classroom intentionally shifts instruction to a learner-centred model in which topics are explored in greater depth and meaningful learning opportunities are created during the time spent in the classroom. 22 Educational innovation and introduction to foreign language educational research Gamification Gamification is the application of game-design elements and game principles in non-game contexts in order to improve user engagement, organizational productivity, learning, etc. The majority of studies on gamification find it has positive effects on individuals. However, individual and contextual differences exist. Gamification can also improve an individual’s ability to comprehend digital content and to understand a certain area of study, such as music. Plurilingual education Plurilingualism is a situation wherein a person who has competence in more than one language can switch from one language to another and vice versa depending on the circumstances at hand with the purpose of dealing with a social matter. A consequence of plurilingualism is pluricultural competence. In general, persons who are identified as plurilinguals had contact with foreign languages through educational institutions; however, the education system plays only a small role in the linguistic competence of these individuals. Task-based language learning Task-based language teaching (TBLT) focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language. Such tasks can include visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling customer service for help. Assessment is primarily based on task outcome (in other words, the appropriate completion of real world tasks) rather than on accuracy of prescribed language forms. This makes TBLT especially popular for the development of target language fluency and student confidence. TBLT can be considered a branch of communicative language teaching (CLT). Triangulation In social sciences, triangulation refers to the use of two or more methods to check the outcomes of the same research. The idea is that one can be more confident if different methods lead to the same result. Triangulation is a powerful technique that facilitates validation of data through cross verification from two or more sources. In particular, it refers to the application and combination of several research methods in the study of the same phenomenon. 23 Enlaces de interés Blog Innovación Educativa, by Ángel Fidalgo. https://innovacioneducativa.wordpress.com/ International Journal of Technology and Educational Innovation. http://www.revistas.uma.es/index.php/innoeduca British Educational Research Association. https://www.bera.ac.uk/group/research-methodology-in-education British Council, Teaching English. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/ One Stop English. http://www.onestopenglish.com European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council of Europe. http://www.ecml.at/ Cooperative Learning, Justifica tu Respuesta. http://justificaturespuesta.com/aprendizaje-cooperativo-manuales/ Task-based learning, Campus Educación. https://www.campuseducacion.com/revista-digital-docente/numeros/5/files/assets/basic-html/ page-24.html# Gamification in education. http://www.educaciontrespuntocero.com/recursos/herramientas-gamificacion-educacion/33094. html The Flipped Classroom, founded by Raúl Santiago. www.theflippedclassroom.es 25 Link of interest Open educational resources. https://www.oercommons.org/ Language MOOCs group in LinkedIn, coordinated by Dr. Elena Martín-Monje (UNED). https://www.linkedin.com/groups/7062803 Mobile language learning. https://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/mobile-learning-improve-english-anytime-anywhere http://www.simposioml.org/ Nanoexperiencias de aprendizaje, Educalab, INTEF. http://educalab.es/intef/formacion/formacion-en-red/nooc 26 Bibliografía References Abdel-Hafez-Pérez, S. 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Salvador Montaner Villalba Reservados todos los derechos© Universidad Internacional de Valencia - 2023