12th Std Political Science Textbook in English PDF

The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on 30.1.2020 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2020-2021. Political Science...

The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on 30.1.2020 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2020-2021. Political Science Standard Twelve Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune. The digital textbook can be obtained through DIKSHA APP on a smartphone by using the Q.R.Code given on title page of the textbook and useful audio-visual teaching-learning material of the relevant lesson will be available through the Q.R.Code given at the end of each lesson of this textbook.  First Edition : 2020 © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Reprint : January 2021 Research, Pune - 411 004. The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director, Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004. Authors Political Science Subject Committee Dr. Shrikant Paranjpe Dr. Shrikant Paranjpe, Chairman Dr. Uttara Sahasrabuddhe Dr. Prakash Pawar, Member Dr. Sanhita Joshi Dr. Mohan Khadase, Member Prof. Ajinkya Gaikwad Dr. Abhay Datar, Member Prof. Manasi Misal Prof. Gayatri Lele Prof. Sangeeta Aher, Member Translation Prof. Ajinkya Gaikwad, Member Dr. Shrikant Paranjpe Dr. Neeta Bokil, Member Dr. Uttara Sahasrabuddhe Shri. Mogal Jadhav, Member Dr. Sanhita Joshi Prof. Gauri Kopardekar Prof. Ajinkya Gaikwad Prof. Gauri Kopardekar Mrs.Varsha Sarode, Member-Secretary Prof. Manasi Misal Prof. Gayatri Lele Political Science Study Group Cartographer Ravikiran Jadhav Dr. Pravin Bhagadikar Prof. Dilip Kadu Cover and Illustrations Prof. Sangita Dixit Dr. Nandkishor Bokade Shri. Devdatta Balkawade Dr. Rajendra Ingale Dr. Ramdas Dhage Typesetting Prof. Veena Kenchi Dr. Balaji Katurwar DTP Section, Balbharati, Pune Dr. Rohidas Mundhe Dr. Prabhakar Londhe Paper : 70 GSM Creamwove Dr. Puranshettiwar V. Shri. Ravindra Jinde Print Order : Prof. Aruna Sane Shri. Subhash Rathod Printer : Prof. Pitambar Urkude Smt. Mugdha Mahabal Production Sachchitanand Aphale Chief Production Officer Coordination Prabhakar Parab, Mrs.Varsha Sarode Production Officer Assistant Special Officer, Shashank Kanikdale, History and Civics Asst. Production Officer Textbook Bureau, Pune Publisher Vivek Uttam Gosavi, Controller Scrutiny Maharashtra State Textbook Bureau, Dr. Rashmi Bhure Prabhadevi, Mumbai - 400 025. NATIONAL ANTHEM  Introduction Dear Students, The subject of Political Science provides you with a broad understanding of the power structures and the system of government. There are various dimensions to this system. The XIth Standard textbook on Political Science introduced you to the various aspects of Political Science. This included the various concepts that are the core of Political Science, the various governmental systems, the system of administration and international relations. Now, in the XIIth standard we move ahead from what you have learned in the last year. The XIIth standard textbook looks at the contemporary world since 1991. This includes the various events that have taken place in the world since 1991 and introduces you to the various conceptual debates that have taken place in the context of globalisation. Issues like environment, sustainable development, poverty and gender are some of the humanitarian issues that we need to address. These, along with the challenges to national integration are dealt with, both as issues of concern and their relevance in the Indian context. How does the government address all these issues? This is looked at in the chapter on Good Governance. Finally, this book provides you with a survey of India’s foreign policy. Standard XI and XII together, will provide you with a comprehensive introduction to the subject of Political Science. It will enable you to understand the subject and provide the necessary tools with which to analyse the events that are happening around you. It would also be useful as a basic guideline when you attempt various competitive examinations. The boxes providing additional information, various activities provided in the textbook and the informative articles in the Q.R.Code will certainly make the process of self-study easier, interesting and encourage active participation. The subject committee, study group, authors and illustrators have taken pains to ensure that you get the maximum benefit from the material provided. The book also provides you with information on various website links to gain more information. Your suggestions and recommendations are most welcome. We will certainly take all those into consideration. We hope that the students, parents and teachers welcome this book. (Vivek Uttam Gosavi) Director Pune Maharashtra State Bureau of Texbook Date : 21st February 2020 Production and Curriculum Research, Pune About the textbook…. In the XIth Standard you were introduced to the various areas of Political Science. You have studied some of the key concepts in Political Science, the working of the Government, the administrative machinery and international relations. The XII standard book will introduce you to some new areas of Political Science. The book starts with a survey of the global changes since 1991. The first chapter introduces you to some of the important trends in global politics since the disintegration of the Soviet Union. This Chapter examines the broad trends in global politics since 1991. The next two chapters focus on some of the key concepts and issues that have emerged in the post 1991 era. Chapter II focuses on globalisation. The book introduces you to the various dimensions of globalisation. These include the political, economic, ideological, technological and socio-cultural aspects. It also focuses on the implications of globalisation to the Indian political and economic system. Chapter III looks at humanitarian issues like environment and sustainable development, poverty and gender. The next two chapters focus on the issues that concern contemporary India. The thrust is on the role of the State in addressing these new issues. Chapter IV focuses on the issues of national integration and the challenges that the Indian State faces in this context. Good governance and citizen centric government is the focus of the role of the State today. Chapter V deals with how the government can deliver various services to the people through good governance. Finally, Chapter VI focuses on India’s role in the world. It looks at how Indian foreign policy has evolved over the years and the issues that India faces in its relations with the world at large. The XIth and XIIth standard books, together, would provide you with both, a foundation of the discipline of Political Science and an introduction to some of the contemporary debates that are taking place in India and the world. They would help you to understand the subject better and prepare you for higher studies in the area of social science and humanities. They would also provide you with a ground work for attempting various competitive examinations. We hope that you find both these books useful for your further studies. We wish you all the best in your future careers.  Competency Statement No. UNIT COMPETENCY Understand the developments in international relations in the post-cold war era. 1. The World since 1991 Understand the growing importance of humanitarian issues, problems of terrorism and the rise of multipolarity and regionalism. Develop the ability to understand and analyse the various changes that have taken place in the 2. Globalisation age of globalisation in the areas of economics; politics; science and technology and society and culture. Introduce the students to contemporary issues like environment and sustainability, poverty and 3. Humanitarian Issues development and gender issues. Develop the ability to analyse these contemporacy issues in the Indian context. Inculcate values of national identity and national integration. 4. National Integration Understand the various challenges to peace, stability and national integration faced by India. Understand the rethinking in traditional approaches to public administration. 5. Good Governance Understand the various dimensions of good governance in India. Understand the evolution of Indian foreign policy. 6. India and the World Develop the ability to analyse India’s relation with various countries.  Contents Map of the World Map of Asia 1. The World since 1991 1 2. Key Concepts and Issues since 1991: 14 Globalisation 3. Key Concepts and Issues since 1991: 24 Humanitarian Issues 4. Contemporary India: Challenges to Peace, 35 Stability and National Integration 5. Contemporary India: Good Governance 48 6. India and the World 59 I. Annexure : Acronyms Annexure : Some Information about North II. East India S.O.I. Note : The following foot notes are applicable : (1) © Government of India, Copyright : 2019. (2) The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. (3) The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line. (4) The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are at Chandigarh. (5) The interstate boundaries amongst Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted from the “North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act. 1971,” but have yet to be verified. (6) The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. (7) The state boundaries between Uttarakhand & Uttar Pradesh, Bihar & Jharkhand and Chattisgarh & Madhya Pradesh have not been verified by the Governments concerned. (8) The spellings of names in this map, have been taken from various sources.  1. The World since 1991 In the XIth standard we studied Do you know? international developments from 1945 to 1991. In this chapter we will look at the A superpower is a state with a leading changes that have taken place in the post position in international politics. It has the 1991 era. ability to influence global events and fulfill its own interests. After the Second World In November 1989, the Berlin Wall fell War, the United States and the Soviet Union and after that the process of Disintegration were the two superpowers who confronted of Soviet Union started. Eventually, in 1991, each other during the Cold War. Cold War ended with the disintegration of Soviet Union. It also ended the East- West Indo-Pacific region and also the rise of division of the world that was based on the Russia under Vladimir Putin. These rivalry of the United States and the Soviet developments and the growth of regionalism Union. brought in multipolarity in the world order. The developments in the post-cold war Regions and regional organisations started to period can be analyzed through five major become more important. consequences: End of Cold War and Rise of New States (i) End of Cold War and rise of new We can see two important trends in states : The end of Cold War led to the end international relations since the East European of an international order dominated by the revolution of 1989. The first is the assertion of two superpowers, the United States and the the concept of ethnic nationalism based on Soviet Union. It also saw the emergence of right to self-determination and the second is new states after the disintegration of the the end of bipolarity. Bipolarity existed Soviet Union. because of the existence of the two superpowers, (ii) Emergence of Unipolarity : The United States and the Soviet Union. The world Cold War between United States and the was divided into two centers of power. The Soviet Union came to end signaling the end disintegration of the Soviet Union ended one of bipolarity. This led to the emergence of a of the centers of power. Therefore, the unipolar world order dominated by the United disintegration of the Soviet Union meant the States. end of bipolarity in the world. (iii) Human Rights and Humanitarian The revolution of the East European intervention : There was an increasing states was a revolution of growing aspirations awareness about human rights and also a of the middle class. They desired more rise in intervention for humanitarian purposes. freedom and economic well-being. They rose (iv) Terrorism : The nature of terrorism against the communist governments that were changed after the 11 September 2001 attacks controlled by the Soviet Union and emerged (also known as 9/11 attacks) against the as free democratic states. Even within the United States. Soviet Union the movement for more political (v) Multipolarity and Regionalism : and economic freedom led to the various This phase primarily saw the rise of China states demanding more autonomy and and India, the growing importance of the eventually independence. Meanwhile, the 1 ethnic identity of the various people of the The trend of creation of new states region became stronger. This led to the on the basis of ethnic nationalism demand for the creation of independent states based on right to self-determination based on ethnic identity. was also seen in other parts of the Here are some examples of this trend: world. Some of the new countries that In Europe the pattern of creation of emerged as independent states were: new states can be seen as follows: - East Timor (independent from - Czechoslovakia split into two Indonesia), states, Czech Republic and Slav - Eretria (independent from Ethiopia), Republic. - South Sudan (independent from Sudan). - Yugoslavia split into Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Bosnia This trend of demand for independence Herzegovina, North Macedonia, on the basis of ethnic nationalism is Montenegro, also seen in the following cases: In case of the former Soviet Union - Catalonia (wants independence the new states were as follows: from Spain) - Kosovo (wants independence from - Armenia, Moldova, Estonia, Serbia. Its independence has been Latvia, Lithuania, Georgia, recognised by some countries of Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Europe) Belarus, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, - Chechnya (wants independence Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Russia. from Russia) Europe 2  Countries of the former Soviet Union Towards a Unipolar World There wasn’t much ideological opposition In 1990, Iraq went in for a war against against the United States and eventually the Kuwait and established control over its meaning of the term ‘New World Order’ territory. There was a global reaction against which implied American dominance and it and the matter was discussed in the United leadership in matters of security was accepted Nations. The United States took the initiative at the global level. This was the first and led a multinational force against Iraq. expression of the unipolar world order. The war ended with Kuwait becoming free from Iraqi control. The then American President George H. Bush considered this as a moral victory and used the term ‘New World Order’ to describe the nature of the global situation. This American action had received global support, including from the Soviet Union, China, countries of the NATO, Israel, and the Arab States including Saudi Arabia. The Soviet Union which was facing internal problems disintegrated in 1991. Map of Kuwait and Iraq 3  Do you know? Do you know? American political American academician commentator Francis Joseph Nye differentiates Fukuyama introduced the between two types of concept of ‘End of powers, namely hard History’. He believed that power and soft power. after the fall of Hard power is ‘the communism in Soviet Francis Fukuyama ability to get others to Union the socialist political, economic Joseph Nye act in ways that are and social system had come to its end contrary to their preferences and wills’. and that the world would now have liberal This is the ability to coerce, through democratic systems. threats and inducements. On the contrary, soft power is the ability to get ‘others The United States emerged as a dominant to want the outcomes that you want’, country. American dominance had political and more particularly ‘the ability to and economic dimensions. Politically, the achieve goals through attraction rather American model of liberal-democratic than coercion’. governance was readily accepted and adopted by several post-communist states of Eastern Europe and elsewhere. The concept of good Some Examples of American Soft governance was linked to democracy. In Power economic sphere, socialist system of economy was given up by most of the countries. Educational exchange programs : The United States is known as a One of the other aspects about American student friendly nation. In last few domination was the use of American ‘soft years, number of international students power’. Soft power is when you influence the studying in the United States has other countries without the use of military increased substantially. force. The influence is spread through economic, social, cultural and other similar Internet : Propagation of democracy means. and freedom of speech through internet has been a soft power of United What is a Liberal Democracy? States. Liberal democracy is a form of Food chains : Food chains in the representative democracy. Liberal democracy United States have a global recognition. is currently one of the dominant political Few examples are McDonald's, ideologies in the world. It gives importance Subway, Pizza Hut, Burger King, etc. to individual liberty. A liberal democracy is characterized by presence of a few important Human Rights and Humanitarian features: interventions : Universal suffrage The process of disintegration of states and the creation of new states was not Free and fair elections always peaceful. In Yugoslavia, for example, Competitive party politics there was a lot of bloodshed in Bosnia Rule of law Herzegovina between different ethnic groups. Conflicts also occurred in Chechnya, East 4  UN Peacekeeping The United Nations does not have its own army. But in order to maintain international peace and security member states of the United Nations have created a UN Peacekeeping Force peacekeeping force out of their own military resources. This force is known as UN Peacekeepers. Peacekeepers are sent to conflict-prone or war zones based upon UN Security Council recommendations often when ceasefires are established. Timor and Eritrea. It is in response to such war but also prevent the reoccurrence of situations that people started to be concerned conflicts in future, maintain peace and protect about the violation of human rights. The the human rights of the affected people. The United Nations, an important global United Nations intervened in Cambodia, organisation would intervene in countries to Somalia and Yugoslavia for this purpose. prevent conflict from escalating. This is one The increasing awareness about human of the main tasks of UN Peacekeeping. rights and their protection in international In the post-cold war era, the United law gave rise to a new phenomenon for Nations continued to intervene in conflict protection of rights in the form of situations to bring about a peaceful resolution 'humanitarian intervention'. The 1990s are of the dispute. But now the rationale for sometimes seen as the golden age of intervention was not just to stop the ongoing humanitarian intervention. Human Rights in the Post-Cold War coordinate the UN human rights initiatives World and establish universal respect for human Since 1990, there was a dramatic rise rights. in the number of states ratifying the six NGOs have been a crucial factor in main human rights conventions and the 1990s spread of human rights ideas. covenants. Over 170 countries participated Organisations such as International in the 1993 World Conference on Human Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Rights, which met in Vienna where they Medicins Sans Frontiers and Oxfam work reaffirmed their commitment to protect directly in conflict zones and have human rights. campaigned to promote the observance of This was followed by the creation of human rights treaties and humanitarian the office of UN High Commissioner for law. Human Rights. Its main task was to 5  Do you know? Humanitarian role played by India UN Operations in Somalia (UNOSOM United Nations Transitional Authority – II) March 1993 to December 1994 : in Cambodia (UNTAC) February 1992 to India played an active role in United September 1993 : India sent military and Nation's campaign in Somalia. The Indian police forces in Cambodia to maintain contingent of the UN Peacekeepers peace and restore human rights. Maintenence successfully provided humanitarian relief. It of law and order, conduct of free and fair dug a large number of wells, constructed elections, civil administration were other schools and mosques, and ran mobile tasks undertaken. India played an important dispensaries and relief camps, which role in repatriation and resettlement of the provided medical as well as veterinary care. Cambodian refugees during the transitional It also carried out rehabilitation of thousands period. of refugees and assisted in their repatriation. Indian Police Officer in Cambodia Indian Army Doctors in Somalia Terrorism The attack on the New York Trade Centre and the Pentagon in Washington D.C. on 11 September 2001 (popularly referred to as 9/11 attack) brought in a new form of terrorism in the world. The concept of terrorism is not new. Terrorism has been Terrorist Attack of 11 September 2001 defined as the use of violence or the threat to use violence with an intention The first instance of modern-day terrorism to create panic in the society and pursue is considered to be the attack on the Israeli political, religious or ideological goals. Olympic team at Munich in 1972 by the Generally, government institutions and Palestinians. Since then terrorist organisations officials are primary targets. and groups have indulged in airplane 6  sanctions, soft power includes social, Do you know? economic, cultural influence, values and tradition. In recent times, the dominant The ‘War on position of the United States has been directly Terror’ is a military or indirectly challenged. For instance, the campaign launched by economic and regional integration in Europe the American President through the creation of European Union (EU); George W. Bush in the rise of Asia through the presence of China response to the 9/11 and Japan followed by India in the global terrorist attacks by al- world order; the military resurgence of Russia Qaeda. The War on and the growing importance of new regional Terror includes the George W. Bush organisations have come to define a shift Afghanistan War (2001) from a unipolar to a multipolar world order. and the War in Iraq (2003). The US-led China has posed a formidable challenge military offensive was supported by Britain, to the unipolar world led by the United Turkey, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, States. China’s rise to global prominence can France and Poland. be attributed to its rapid economic progress hijackings, bombings and assassinations of since the introduction of economics reforms political leaders. Traditional forms of terrorism in the mid-1970s under Deng Xiaoping’s mainly targeted institutions of the state. The leadership. The most dramatic phase of which terrorists usually fought for the rights of some began only in the 1990s. specific people. The terrorist activity was China has increased its sphere of usually associated with separatist movements. influence through its ambitious economic Modern day terrorism is different in projects such as One Belt One Road and several ways. The terrorists today are not China Pakistan Economic Corridor and aims fighting for a specific group in a specific to create a sphere of influence in Central and geographic area. The terrorist organisations East Asian regions. Furthermore, Chinese are motivated and inflamed by an abstract opening to Africa shows that their dream religious ideology, the fight is for abstract goes beyond neighbouring countries. Militarily, goals and the operations are global in nature. China is ambitiously building up its naval After the 9/11 attacks, similar attacks took and air power in order to back up its claims place in Bali (2002), Madrid (2004), London in the South China Sea. (2005) and Mumbai (2008). Can you find out ? Multipolarity and Regionalism What is One Belt One Road and China The world order was dominated by the Pakistan Economic Corridor policy of China? United States in the post-cold war era. The American military and economic might was Russia has made substantial progress in unchallenged during this time. This made it oil and gas production. Russia has emerged the only superpower. However, economic rise as an energy superpower. Economic stability and military capabilities are not the only has renewed the sense of national pride criteria to become and remain a superpower. leading to military assertiveness in recent It is the amalgamation of both hard power times. Russia continues to influence Central and soft power that shapes a country to and Eastern Europe and it is a founding become a world power. While hard power member of the Shanghai Cooperation relies on coercion, military force and economic Organisation (SCO). 7  Today the Indo-Pacific region is gaining organisations started to focus on issues of importance. Economic growth in Asia, led by trade. We see the creation of Trade Blocs China and other countries like India and during this period. Japan; conflicts in the South China Sea; the importance of ASEAN and American interest What is a Trade Bloc ? in the Pacific region has contributed to the importance of this region. India is likely to A trade bloc is created when a group play an important role in this region in the of nations make special agreements future. regarding their economic relationships with each other. The agreements generally Regionalism in the Post-Cold War Era   focus on the relaxation or elimination of Regionalism is an important issue in trade barriers. The most common types international relations. Countries come of trade barriers are tariffs (taxes on together to either create or join some regional imports) and quotas (limits on the organisations. These organisations may be quantities of various imports). based on geographic proximity or on common political, ideological, economic etc. concerns. While geographic linkages are important, Let us take a survey of some of the sometimes some functional and infrastructural important regional organisations in the post- issues become the basis of regional cold war era: cooperation. These can be in areas like (i) European Union (EU) transport and communication, energy, health, etc. The process of regionalism usually begins The Second World War followed by the with a political dialogue amongst the Cold War gave rise to a constant instability participants. Similar ideological perspectives which has always motivated the European or economic concerns may help the process countries to come together. It is on this basis of dialogue. Such a dialogue may lead to that European Union was established. The the creation of an organisation. European Union began as an organisation which wanted to foster economic cooperation. In the 1940s and 1950s regionalism in The idea being that countries that trade with Asia and Africa focused on a political one another become economically dialogue between countries. In Europe the interdependent and so more likely to avoid focus was on economic cooperation. For conflict. The European Coal and Steel example, Europe created the European Coal Community (ECSC) and European Economic and Steel Community (ECSC, 1951), the Community (EEC) were created for this European Economic Community (EEC, 1957) purpose in 1951 and 1957 respectively. and the European Atomic Energy Agency (Euratom, 1958). Later these various organisations merged together and were referred to as the European In 1960s the concept of regional Community. In 1973 an agreement was cooperation spread to Asia and the Association signed to create a European Parliament. The of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was process of creating a single market for the created in 1967. In the 1960s we saw the European Union began in the 1980s and was growth of regional organisations that focused completed in 1993. The ‘Maastricht’ Treaty on economic issues. Some regional was signed on 7th February 1992 to create organisations like the North Atlantic Treaty the European Union (EU). This treaty led to Organisation (NATO) focused on security the expansion of spheres of cooperation issues. In the post-cold war era, the regional which now included internal affairs, judicial 8  Do this. Make a list of the countries who are part of the Eurozone. The creation of the Schengen Area is one of the greatest achievements of the EU. The Schengen Agreement – covering the abolishment of the internal borders between countries was signed in 1985. The Agreement was signed by the five European countries France, Germany, Belgium, Luxemburg, and Netherlands, in Schengen, a small village in Southern Luxemburg. The Schengen visa is the most common visa for Europe. The Schengen Area is an area Eurozone Countries (Source : https://europa.eu/european-union/about- eu/euro/which-countries-use-euro-en) Do you know? (Date : 5 Nov. 2020) matters, foreign and defence policies. The treaty led to the creation of an economic union which had a common currency, the Euro. The euro (€) is the official currency of 19 out of 28 countries of the EU. These countries are collectively known as the Eurozone. The process of European cooperation The Euro : The Euro was launched began as a purely economic union and in the world money market on 1st evolved into an organisation dealing with January 1999; it became the unit of various policy areas like climate change, exchange for all of the EU states except environment, health, external relations and the United Kingdom, Sweden, and security, and migration. Denmark. The geographic and economic region that consists of all the EU Can you find out? countries that have fully incorporated Who are the members of the European the Euro as their national currency is Union? known as the Eurozone. 9 without internal borders. In this area, nationals when they pass from one country to another. of EU and even non-EU nationals including Today 22 out of the 28 countries of the business people and tourists can travel from European Union are part of the Schengen country to country freely and easily. They do Area. not have to go through checks and controls Schengen Area (Source : https://europa.eu/eruopean-union/about-eu/countries_en#countries-using-the-euro) (Date : 5 Nov. 2020) Do you know? What is the Schengen Visa ? A Schengen visa allows eligible individuals to travel freely within the 26 participating Schengen Area countries. This means travelers in Europe will not be subject to border checks at internal Schengen borders and enter various Schengen countries directly. 10  Discuss the case of Brexit. Do you know? In 2016, the people of United How does the European Union Kingdom (UK) voted to leave the work : There are four key institutions European Union in a referendum. The UK which work together to run the EU - the formally ended its membership of the EU at midnight of Friday, 31 January 2020. European Commission, the European This is called Brexit. Brexit is an assertion Parliament, the European Council and of British sense of nationalism. This the European Court of Justice. shows that the concept of State very much The European Commission : The relevant. Have a discussion in class in Commission is the executive- this context on the basis of the following bureaucratic arm of the EU. It is questions: mainly responsible for drawing up Why did Britain want to exit from proposals for new European legislation, the European Union? and it implements the policy decisions Does the vote in favour of Brexit go of the European Parliament and the against the concept of globalisation? Council of the EU. The European Parliament : The European Parliament is composed of 751 Members, who are directly elected every five years. It is a body entrusted with legislative, supervisory, and budgetary responsibilities. (ii) SAARC The European Council : The SAARC was formed in 1985 at Dhaka. structure of the European Council Originally, SAARC had seven members, consists of the presidents or prime namely India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, ministers of each member state, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Maldives. In 2007, accompanied by their foreign Afghanistan was added as the eighth member. ministers, and a full-time President Meanwhile, China, USA, EU along with 9 of the European Council. The other nations have been conferred with the European Council meets four times 'observer status'. The main aim of SAARC a year and provides strategic was to establish a dialogue in South Asia. leadership for the EU. With this context, South Asian Association The European Court of Justice for Preferential Trade Arrangement (SAPTA) : The ECJ interprets, and adjudicates came into existence in 1993. Later in 2006, on, EU law and treaties. As EU law SAARC's free trade arrangement was has primacy over the national law activated through South Asian Association of EU member states. Free Trade Area (SAFTA) which replaced the earlier regime of SAPTA. (iii) BIMSTEC The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi- Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) is a regional organisation founded in 1997. It comprises of seven 11 Member States lying in the littoral and counter terrorism. The SCO's primary focus adjacent areas of the Bay of Bengal. Among is on maintaining peace and stability in the them, five are from South Asia, including region through political dialogue and economic Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, cooperation among member states. SCO also and two from Southeast Asia, including encourages effective cooperation in trade, Myanmar and Thailand. BIMSTEC acts as a research and technology. bridge between South and South East Asia (vi) G-20 and mainly aims to facilitate rapid economic G-20 is an international forum established development and promote collaboration on in 1999 for governments and central bank matters of common interests. governors from 19 countries and the European (iv) Brazil, Russia, India, China and Union. It was formed with a primary aim to South Africa (BRICS ) discuss policies relating to financial stability. BRICS is an association of major Since 2008, the G-20 Summits are attended emerging national economies created in 2009. by the heads of the government or head of Its original members were Brazil, Russia, the states along with their finance ministers India and China. South Africa joined in and foreign ministers. Developed countries 2010. BRICS members are all developing like United States, Britain, Germany, France, countries or newly industrialized countries. Japan among others are a part of G-20. It They have large, fast-growing economies and thus, acts as a platform for discussion significant influence on regional and global between the developed and developing affairs. All of them are members of G20. countries. India plays an active part in G-20. (v) Shanghai Cooperation Organisation We have seen some of the important (SCO) trends in global politics since 1991. These SCO is a political, economic and security trends indicate the major changes that have organisation, which was founded in Shanghai taken place in the world since the by the leaders of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, disintegration of the Soviet Union. In the Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan in the next chapter we will see how these trends year 2001. India and Pakistan joined in 2016. can be understood at a conceptual level. In the past few years SCO has focussed on See the following website for additional information: (1) College of Engineering, (COEP) Pune, History Club Lecture, ‘‘१९९१ नंतरचे जग आणि प्रवाह’’ - डॉ.श्रीकांत परांजपे World After 1991" - Dr. Shrikant Paranjpe. (On You Tube) (2) India and United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, By Lt Gen Satish Nambiar (Retd) January 26, 2014, Media Centre, Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India https://mea.gov.in/articles-in-indian-media.htm?dtl/22776/India+and+United+Nations+Peacekeeping+Operations 12  Exercise Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.2 (B) Observe the maps in textbook and complete the following statements. answer the following questions. 1. The main aim of was to (1) Name any four countries in the establish a dialogue in South Asia. Schengen area. (Page 10) (SAARC, BRICS, G20, SCO) (2) Name any two non-European Union countries within Schengen area. (Page 2. Catalonia wants independence from 10). (Indonesia, Serbia, Spain, Russia) Q.3 State whether the following statements are true or false with reason. (B) State the appropriate concept for the (1) SAARC is important for trade in South given statement. Asia. 1. When a state influences other states (2) ‘Maastricht’ Treaty was signed for the without the use of military force. defence of Europe. 2. A state with a leading position in (3) The decade of 1980s is seen as the international politics with abilities to golden age of humanitarian intervention. influence global politics and fulfill its own interest. Q.4 Express your opinion. (1) Express your opinion about Q.2 (A) Complete the concept maps. humanitarian intervention. 1. (2) Is Regionalism important in international politics? India Q.5 Answer the following. BIMSTEC COUNTRIES Explain the term soft power with examples. Q.6 Answer the following question in detail Myanmar with help of given points. Discuss the European Union with help of given points. (a) History (b) European Commission 2. (c) European Parliament (d) European Council (e) European Court of Justice Shanghai Activity Cooperation Find out the role played by India in BRICS. Organisation (Founders)  13  2. Key Concepts and Issues since 1991 : Globalisation We have studied the changes that took interconnectedness has increased, the place in the world after 1991. We read importance of the state structure has not about the changes that took place in Eastern declined. In fact, the concept of nationalism is Europe in 1989, the Kuwait crisis of 1990 still very much alive. Some feel that economics and the disintegration of the Soviet Union in and technology are key factors that have 1991. It was during the Kuwait crisis that brought the world together. They argue that the term ‘New World Order’ was used to the concept of sovereignty and jurisdiction of describe the nature of world order. After the states is now being challenged. There are disintegration of the Soviet Union two terms others who give importance to the civil society came to be used: ‘post-Soviet world order’ and non-state actors. According to them social and ‘post-cold war era’. All these three terms movements cut across state boundaries and focussed on the political and security situation focus on humanitarian problems of the people. that evolved after 1991. In the early 1990s Let us look at the changes that have another term started to be used. The term occurred in each of these areas separately. was ‘globalisation’. Unlike the earlier terms We will also see how these changes have the term globalisation was broader based. It affected India. We are going to see the included the nature of economic, ideological, changes in these areas separately only for political, technological, social and cultural academic convenience. In reality all these changes that took place in the world after areas are interconnected. This means that 1991. Today we use the term globalisation political or economic change will affect to describe the post-cold war era. society and culture and vice versa. What is globalisation? Economic Issues When we talk of globalisation, we say Some of the important changes that have that the world has become more occurred in the area of economic issues are interconnected. Technological developments as follows: have helped this interconnectivity. For (i) Free flow of finance capital : Investment example, online applications can be made for is an important aspect of the economic admission to any college or university abroad. system. Industries need finance. Similarly, mobile calls or WhatsApp messages Investments help to build industries as can be made from any part of the world to they provide finance. Investments are your friends and family. Changes have taken done by both, the government and the place in economics and trade. Indian fruits private sector. Today you may have read and flowers are exported to Europe and about how Indian companies are investing America, various consumer goods from in foreign countries. Private companies Europe, America or China are available in like Tatas, Reliance, etc have invested the Indian market. not only in India but in various industries Globalisation increased interconnectedness in America, Europe, Africa and other among countries and people and events in one places. Even government companies like part of the world have an impact on other ONGC have made investments abroad. parts. There are various ways of looking at Similarly, a lot of foreign companies are this change. One argument is that while investing in India. 14  These investments take place in both countries and from foreign companies into infrastructural sector and consumer sector. India. Foreign companies have invested in building India is a developing country; it needs airports, nuclear power plants, etc. in India. financial investment in industry for its They have also invested in consumer food development. There are limitations to domestic chains like MacDonald’s, Burger King, Pizza financial investment in India. Therefore, Hut, etc. foreign investment is always welcome. But Prior to the 1990s such investments were we must also remember that this investment rare. There used to be several governmental in the infrastructure sector is more important rules that made investments difficult. This than that in the consumer sector. Real has now changed. This change is looked at development will take place with building of as free flow of financial capital. This capital communication networks through road, rail, flows both ways, from India to foreign water and air travel. Examples of Indian investments abroad Tata’s Jaguar Land Rover in UK ONGC Videsh Ltd, Vietnam Examples of Foreign investments in India Microsoft in India Nestlé in India 15 (ii) Change in the concept of trade : Several (c) Another change that has occurred in changes have taken place in the approach the area of trade is the use of to trade since the 1990s. container cargo ships. Container (a) International trade was governed by ships are able to carry huge amounts rules and regulations under the of goods across the world. There are General Agreement on Tariffs and special port facilities for container Trade (GATT) since 1948. GATT ships. The container cargo revolution was not an organisation, it was an has changed the manner in which agreement amongst nations regarding trade takes place in the world today. trade. In 1995 GATT was replaced by the World Trade Organisation (WTO). WTO is an international body whose purpose is to promote free trade by persuading countries to abolish import tariffs and other barriers. The WTO is the only international agency overseeing the rules of international trade. It promotes free trade agreements, settles trade disputes between Container Cargo governments and organises trade negotiations. Do you know? (b) Trade is normally done in commodities. These can be (i) The General Agreement on Trade in commodities like iron ore, coal, oil Services (GATS) is a treaty of the or such perishable commodities like World Trade Organisation (WTO) that fruits, flowers, seeds, etc. In the entered into force in 1995. The treaty 1990s the scope of the term ‘trade’ was created to extend the multilateral widened and we talked of trade in trading system to services, in the same services. Thus banking, insurance, way the General Agreement on Tariffs etc. were services and they were and Trade (GATT) provides such a also looked at as matters in which system for merchandise trade. trade can be done. Today we talk (ii) The WTO Agreement on Trade- of trade in intellectual property. This Related Aspects of Intellectual Property includes copyrights, trademarks, Rights (TRIPs) is an international patents, etc. treaty which sets down minimum Examples of Intellectual Property standards for most forms of intellectual property regulation within all member countries of the WTO. Some of the things TRIPs deals with includes copyrights, geographical indications; industrial designs; integrated circuit, patents, trademarks, etc. TRIPs Copyright Trade Marks also specifies enforcement procedures, remedies, and dispute resolution procedures. 16 (iii) Rise of transnational companies : Until brought in new technology and the 1990s the government had a lot of opened up markets for Indian control on the economic sector. There agricultural products. For example, was a limited scope for the private India exports marine products, meat, sector. Globalisation has changed this rice, spices, cotton, fresh fruits and situation. We have seen the growth of vegetables, sugar, coffee, groundnut, private companies. Companies that used cashews, etc. to operate within the nation started operating in foreign lands. They became Do you know? multinational companies. Today we also see the growth of transnational companies. This development is mainly in the private -A Multinational Company is a sector. How does this affect the common company that is operating in several person? countries but has one home country (a) One impact is seen on the labour from where it controls all the business. market. There is a migration of Some Indian multinational companies: skilled and semi-skilled labour from Bajaj, Dabur, Aditya Birla, ONGC, one country to another. For example, Amul, Godrej, Wipro, etc. these companies recruit both, skilled -Transnational Corporations are a and semi-skilled employees. There is type of multinational corporations. A a lot of skilled and semi-skilled Transnational Company is borderless, as Indian labour working in West Asia, it does not consider any particular Africa, United States, Europe, etc. country as its base, home or headquarters. The growth of private sector has Some Transnational companies: Nestlé, also increased the employment in Bayer, Unilever, Siemens, General the service sector. Various services Electric, etc. like providing catering, delivery of -The Service Sector is the third of goods, transport, etc. are being the three traditional economic sectors. provided. The first is the primary sector which (b) A second impact is seen on the covers areas like farming, mining, small industries and shops. They fishing, etc., the second is the have to face competition from the manufacturing sector. Service sector big multinational companies. Shops provides various services like catering, and small industries that are efficient housekeeping, security, etc. are able to compete. For example, we have seen big grocery stores and malls in cities, but despite these, the What do you think? small shopkeepers, vegetable and Can the cooperative movement of fruit sellers continue to attract India be an answer to the domination of clientele. This is because they multinational and transnational companies? provide the necessary services to the The philosophy of the cooperative people. movement is to provide both, empowerment (c) A third impact is on the agricultural and finance to the members while that of sector. Today farmers are able to the corporations work on profit motive. sell their goods directly to companies. Give your opinion on this. Multinational companies have 17  (iii) Non-State actors : It is the importance Discuss : of the civil society that has given What has been the impact of importance to non-state actors. Thus, globalisation on the Indian agricultural Voluntary Organisations and Non- sector, especially the small farmer? Governmental Organisations (NGO) have started to become more important. Today Political Issues international relations is not relations Political issues in the context of between states, it also includes non-state globalisation mainly focus on the following: actors. They play an important role in (i) Importance of Democracy: The East promoting humanitarian issues. Besides European revolution of 1989 and the organisations like the Amnesty disintegration of the Soviet Union is International, Green Peace Movement, looked at as the fall of communism. It terrorist organisations are also non-state has been argued that the world is moving actors. towards democratic political systems. (iv) Human Rights: In the age of globalisation Terms like ‘Participatory State’, ‘Citizen protection of human rights has become Centric Governance’ and ‘Good an important agenda. But there is a need Governance’ have become important. to make a distinction between the Participatory state goes beyond traditional approaches to human rights of the democratic practices wherein the decision developed world and the developing is made by the majority. In a participatory world. The Third World holds that state all segments of the society are economic development has to precede involved in the making of policy. Citizen before civil and political rights and that centric governance and good governance a greater value needs to be placed on focus on the role of the civil society in community and family than on individual the functioning of the government. rights. The Indian constitution for (ii) Position of the State : It is being argued example, lays stress on the aspect of that the State is becoming less and less social justice and looks at food, shelter, important. One of the key features of the clothing, education and health as primary State is its sovereignty. The concept of needs of its citizens. It is further argued sovereignty is linked with the concept of that in the desire to achieve distributive jurisdiction of the state. This is the right justice there is an undue emphasis on of the State to make laws within its liberty rights and not welfare rights of territory. It has been argued that the the people. Therefore, countries should concept of sovereignty is being challenged have the right to interpret human rights from both, internal and external factors. in accordance to their history, culture, External challenges come from the growth polity, and economy. Thus, the broad of international law, regional economic application of western approach to organisations, globalisation of markets, human rights, that focuses on civil and growing environmental and humanitarian political rights and freedoms as a priority, concerns, etc. Internal challenges come would have to be tempered with the from a decline of national consensus, ground situation mentioned above. growth of ethnic nationalism, activism of Let us see some examples to understand non-state actors, etc. Issues like these issues in detail. environment, gender and humanitarian India is a signatory to various international problems have taken the center stage. 18  treaties, organisations and conventions. As a member of the WTO India is required to follow some rules regarding international trade practices. Treaties like the Indus Waters Treaty with Pakistan or the Farakka Agreement with Bangladesh requires India to follow the agreement in matters of sharing of waters of the Indus and the Ganga. Organisations like Amnesty International or Green Peace raise humanitarian issues and put pressure on local governments. Amnesty has been critical of the Indian Chernobyl nuclear power plant after the explosion government’s position on human rights in regions like Kashmir. Can you find out? When the Chernobyl disaster took place Find out cases where the sovereignty the effects of radiation spread across of the State has been challenged by non- Europe. Such environmental disasters state actors. cannot be restricted to a nation’s In all the above cases the State’s sovereignty boundaries. European countries were was challenged by these groups. These are forced to cooperate and take action to some of the challenges that the State faces ensure that the ill effects do not harm from internal and external factors. Therefore, their population. it is argued that the role of the State is The Narmada Bachao Andolan had slowly reducing. In the economic sphere it is approached the World Bank to support reducing because of the increasing importance its cause of opposition to big dams and of the private sector and in the political had internationalised the issue. sphere the domestic and international pressures There has been an opposition to the have reduced the authority of the State. building of the nuclear power plants in How important is the State in the age Jaitapur and Kudankulam. Political of globalisation? Is the concept of the State parties and NGOs have opposed the and its features still relevant? Is there a building of these projects despite getting withdrawal of the State as an agency of proper clearance. welfare and development? Let us look at the main elements of the State. The main elements are territory, sovereignty government and people. Today, the territory of the State still remains intact. States still talk of nationalism and national integration. The concept of sovereign government also continues to exist. It is true that some of its powers have reduced due to international treaty obligations, but the authority of the State remains. The rise of ethnic nationalism and the demand for self- Agitation against Kudankulam nuclear plant determination has led to the creation of new 19 States. But as we saw in the earlier chapter, private sector played an important role in the this has led to the creation of new states and economic system. not the dissolution of the concept of the Today, in the era of globalisation there State. appears to be only one dominant ideological States that have a strong framework of and economic system. This is described as political institutions (like Legislature, ‘Market Economy’. But all countries do not Executive, Judiciary and Bureaucracy) are follow the same kind of market economic able to face the challenges of globalisation. system. The nature of market economy is It is these institutions that are able to protect determined by the ideology of that country. the core values of a country, provide social Let us take some examples. The United safety nets and promote development in the States is considered a ‘capitalist market country. Despite the many concerns about the economy’ because it combines the capitalist loss of sovereignty, the State remains the key system of economy with market economics. actor in the domestic and the international Western European countries are described as sphere. The popular assumption that the ‘welfare market economies’ because their emergence of global civil society, and political system is that of a ‘welfare state’. increasing levels of cross-border trade, finance China is described as having a ‘socialist and investment flows have made the State market economy’. China is a socialist state irrelevant, is wrong. but its economic system changed in the 1990s Ideological Issues and became a market economic system. In Ideology was an important factor during India we do not use the word market the cold war era. Countries used to be economics. We describe Indian system as classified as Socialist or Communist on the ‘economic liberalism’. one hand and Capitalist or Free Democracies Technology on the other. Soviet Union, East Europe, and The nature of global communication China were grouped as the socialist world changed rapidly in the 1990s. Satellite while West Europe and North America was communication system, mobile telephone, the capitalist bloc. Ideology and the economic FAX, internet, etc brought in revolutionary systems were well connected. While ideology changes in the social, political and economic was a political feature, the economic system life of the people. followed by the countries depended upon the Let us see the manner in which media ideology of that country. For example, the changed in India. In 1990 CNN came into countries of Eastern Europe had followed the India. Until the coming in of a foreign Socialist ideology and had socialist economic channel, Doordarshan was the only TV systems where the government or the public broadcaster in India. In Maharashtra, for sector was most important. Western European example we saw only two channels: Mumbai countries followed the capitalist ideology and Delhi Doordarshan. Within a span of a hence their economic system was also decade, the Indian TV network had several capitalist in nature. In these countries the channels that were both private and private sector played an important role in the governmental. Satellite communication system economy. During this period countries like made it easy to have a dish antenna and India were ‘Democratic Socialist’. This meant watch programmes anywhere in India. that they combined the ideologies of socialism Changes also took place in other means and capitalism as per their requirement. of communication. Earlier, telephone Consequently, India had a ‘Mixed Economic connections were not available in all system’. This meant that both, the public and 20 households. People would use the public ‘Facebook’, ‘Instagram’, ‘Whats App’ etc. telephones in the Post or the Telegraph office The technologies of the information age in case of emergencies. Long distance calls are by their nature transnational. Mobile were done through a system of Trunk Calls. phones, satellite television and the Internet Later on, the government introduced the operate regardless of borders. This has Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD). Today we facilitated the growth of transborder groups, have mobile connectivity which is used by bodies and institutions, ranging from non- almost everybody. Both, private and governmental organisations (NGOs) and government mobile phone systems are transnational corporations (TNCs) to available today. international criminal and terrorist The internet revolution was perhaps the organisations. The states have found it most important revolution in the field of difficult to control and restrict the operations technology. It became possible to connect to of transborder groups and organisations. anyone in the world instantly. This global Can you find out? communication infrastructure has helped in the spread of ideas, cultures and information. Find out cases where agitations have Internet has provided ‘search engines’ to find used social networking to highlight their information, it has also enabled ‘social demands. networking’ activity like ‘Twitter’, ‘Skype’, Do you know? The Arab Spring movement that took place in Egypt is sometimes called a ‘Facebook revolution’. Find out what the Arab Spring movement was and how social networking was used during that movement. Social and Cultural Issues The revolution in global media and the easy access to the internet has made people STD ISD Telephone Booth aware of what is happening globally. This, along with the movement of the people within the country and the world has had an impact on the society and culture. We see the emergence of what is called ‘global cosmopolitan culture’. There is a great deal of western domination on this global cosmopolitan culture. Values like modernisation, westernisation, secularisation are considered more important than traditional values. This is seen in personal lifestyles of the people. For example, there is an increase in the consumption of fast food like burgers, pizza, Mobile Revolution 21  Friendship Day Credit Cards vada pav, etc. The method of celebrating through the private sector as it has the traditional festivals like Christmas, Diwali, financial capability. There is a serious etc. has become more westernized. New ideas financial limitation on what services the like celebrating ‘Mother’s Day’, Father’s government can provide. Day’, ‘Friendship Day’, etc. have come in. But there are also negative aspects. There is also an increasing demand for There is the fear that the welfare activity ‘western wear’ in the clothes that are that the State provides would come to an purchased in the market. end. There is also the fear that international Another aspect of this global culture is competition would cripple local business, the rise of individualism and materialism in especially small business. In the field of the society. The breakup of traditional family agriculture, the fear is that the small and system was mainly due to urbanisation. This marginal farmer would not be able to has been further enhanced by the concept of compete with the big corporations. individualism. We are likely to hear the In reality, India’s biggest problem is words ‘I want my privacy’ or ‘this is my attitudes and mindsets. India has identified personal space’ right from school going all foreign capital and trade with its history children to elderly people. Similarly, the of imperialist dependence. Independence tendency to spend beyond one’s financial meant autonomy and self-reliance. India’s means has increased due to the introduction opposition to liberalisation has roots in its of the credit cards. ideology of anti-imperialism. India’s socialists When we look at globalisation from all and capitalists are both hostile to liberalisation. angles, we realise that there are both, positive The former for ideological reasons; the latter and negative aspects. The positive aspects because of the fear of losing the traditional are the new opportunities that have opened protection that they have enjoyed in India. In up for the youth in our country. We are now the long run, it is for the Indian State to more aware of what is happening in the protect its core values and ensure that the world, and how it can affect us. We are welfare net is maintained so the marginalized better connected. New employment and the underprivileged people do not suffer. opportunities have come up and more jobs This continues to be an important role of the are being created. This change is mainly State in the age of globalisation. 22  See the following website for additional information: India - A Hub for Globalisation, Remarks by Raghuram Rajan, Economic Counsellor and Director of the Research Department, IMF, January 7, 2005, New Delhi, India, International Monetary Fund, https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2015/09/28/04/53/ sp010705 Exercise Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.2 State whether the following statements are complete the following statements. true or false with reasons. 1. The technologies of the information age (1) Investment in infrastructure sector is are by their nature. most important - (transnational, national, local, regional) (2) Non-state actors have become irrelevant 2. In 1995, GATT was replaced by the in the age of globalisation -. Q.3 Explain co-relation between the following. (European Union, World Trade (1) Globalisation and culture Organisation, United Nations, World (2) GATT and WTO Bank) Q.4 Express your opinion of the following. (B) Find the odd word in the given set. Participatory State is beneficial to the Mobile, Satellite, Internet, Gramophone society. (C) Suggest appropriate concept for the Q.5 Answer the following question in 80 to given statements. 100 words. (1) The international agency dealing with What are the positive and negative aspects international trade - of Globalisation ? (2) The companies that operate in several countries - Activity (D) Identify the incorrect pair in every Talk to people of the older generation to set, correct it and rewrite it. find out what changes have taken place in 1. (i) Service sector - Bank the age of globalisation. (ii) Intellectual property - Trademark  (iii) Perishable commodity - Coal 2. (i) China - Socialist market economy (ii) India - Capitalist market economy (iii) Western European Countries - Welfare market economics 23  3. Key Concepts and Issues since 1991: Humanitarian Issues In the first two chapters we have studied development as an alternative approach to the changes that have taken place in the one based on economic growth. world since 1991. We saw how the process The UN General Assembly called for the of globalisation has brought in concepts like UN Conference on Environment and participatory state, awareness of human Development (UNCED) as a follow up to the rights, increasing importance of non-state report of the Brundtland Commission. The actors, etc. Today, humanitarian issues like goal of the summit was to understand the environment, perspectives about poverty and concept of development that would support development policies and approaches towards socio-economic development and prevent the gender have become important. This chapter continued deterioration of the environment. It looks at these issues and tries to understand also aimed at creating a partnership between how India has dealt with them. the developing and the more industrialised Environment and Sustainability countries to ensure a healthy future for the What is the environment? It is everything planet. This summit was held at Rio in 1992. that makes up our surroundings, the air we The Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit (1992) breathe, the water that covers most of the also called the Rio Summit, the Rio earth's surface, the plants and animals around Conference, or the Earth Summit sought to us, and much more. It is the conditions in create international cooperation on which a person, animal, or plant lives. The development issues. It tried to raise public natural environment consists of all living and awareness on the need to integrate environment non-living things occurring naturally. It and development. In 2002 the Earth Summit would include soil, rocks, atmosphere, air, was held in Johannesburg with the goal of water, and climate, etc. There is also the again bringing together leaders from built environment. This refers to such areas government, business and NGOs. Sustainable where man has transformed landscapes such Development was recognised as the most as urban settings and agricultural land important goal for institutions at the national, conversion. The natural environment is regional and international levels. In 2012, the modified into a human environment. United Nations Conference on Sustainable The relationship between economic Development was again held in Rio, and is development and environmental degradation also commonly called Rio+20 or Rio Earth was first placed on the international agenda Summit 2012. in 1972, at the United Nations (UN) Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm. The main purpose of the conference was to encourage and provide guidelines for the protection and improvement of human environment. In 1983 the UN set up the World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission). The Report of the Commission (1987) put forward the concept of sustainable 24  Loss of Biodiversity : Loss of biodiversity threatens food security and population health. Climate change is also a major contributor to biodiversity. The goal of environmental sustainability is to conserve natural resources and to develop alternate sources of power while reducing pollution and harm to the environment. Environmental sustainability is defined as responsible interaction with the environment to avoid depletion or degradation of natural resources and allow for long-term Pollution environmental quality. The practice of environmental sustainability helps to ensure that the needs of today's population are met without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Some of the important environmental concerns are as follows: Climate Change : Greenhouse gas emissions are the main cause of climate change. This has resulted in extreme weather events such as droughts, wildfires, heat waves and flooding. Deforestation Pollution : Air pollution and climate change are closely linked. Greenhouse gas Do this. emissions that are warming the planet are What can you do to protect the also creating smoggy conditions in major environment? cities that endanger public health.