1.1 Framing global politics.pdf

1.1 Framing global politics- Systems and interactions in global politics Syllabus section Core topics: Understanding power and global politics. Prescribed topic Framing global politics- Systems and interactions in global politics IB Global politics exam qu...

1.1 Framing global politics- Systems and interactions in global politics Syllabus section Core topics: Understanding power and global politics. Prescribed topic Framing global politics- Systems and interactions in global politics IB Global politics exam questions are written using the prescribed topics and prescribed content given in the syllabus. As part of your revision process you should use the syllabus to check you have covered all of the prescribed content. Prescribed course content and worksheet contents 1 Political issues.......................................................................................................................................... 2 2 Stakeholders and actors........................................................................................................................... 3 2.1 States......................................................................................................................................... 4 Introducing theory............................................................................................................. 5 2.2 Types of state government....................................................................................................... 8 2.3 Political spectrums................................................................................................................... 11 2.4 Subnational and local governments........................................................................................ 12 2.5 Political parties........................................................................................................................ 14 2.6 Political leaders........................................................................................................................ 15 2.7 Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs)............................................................................... 16 Detailed example: Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs)................................................. 17 2.8 Organized civil society (including non-governmental organisations)..................................... 18 Global politics basics and the contemporary rule................................................................... 19 2.9 Social movements................................................................................................................... 20 2.10 Resistance movements......................................................................................................... 21 2.11 Private actors/ companies..................................................................................................... 21 2.12 Interest and pressure groups................................................................................................ 23 2.13 Formal and informal political forums.................................................................................... 23 2.14 The media.............................................................................................................................. 26 2.15 Re-cap task: Political actor bingo....................................................................................... 28 3 Systems—structures and dynamics and 4 Legal frameworks, norms and institutions......................... 29 5 Exam preparation: Paper 2..................................................................................................................... 30 Assessment skills in this module None Theories introduced: constructivism, environmentalism, Theories covered in this module feminism, liberalism, postcolonialism, realism. 1 1 Political issues What is a political issue? Source: IB Global politics subject guide "In DP global politics, a political issue is any situation or matter that deals with how power is distributed and how it operates within social organization. This can be extended to the different ways people think about and engage with matters that affect their lives, their communities and the wider world. Political issues are researched in university social science departments and think tanks. They fill the agendas of politicians and policymakers. They occupy the minds of executives in global corporations and local social entrepreneurs. They affect how people participate in and resist change. They are discussed in social media, mass media and over coffee. They inspire oratory and art. They are deeply rooted in history and culture. In short, political issues are an ongoing, ever-present part of our daily lives.” Task: 1. Write down as many political issues as possible. These could be at the local, national, international or global scales. 2. How could you categorise these issues? 3. Can you visually show the connections between the issues you have mapped? 2 2 Stakeholders and actors Who is a stakeholder? In global politics, a stakeholder is a person, or group of people, who have an interest in a political issue. A stakeholder is impacted by a political issue, they may also be part of the cause of the issue, but they have little power over this participation. Stakeholders tend to have limited power to change the political issue. Who is an actor? In global politics, an actor is a person or group of people, who have the power to influence or change political issues. They may also be impacted by the political issue and be a stakeholder. The key difference is that an actor has more power to act on the political issue. Example political issue: waste crisis from tourism in the Maldives. Stakeholders: local communities; local fisher(wo)men; tourists. Actors: waste contractors: tourist companies; government of the Maldives. Example political issue: international crude oil price increases. Stakeholders: civilian consumers e.g. car owners; industrial consumers e.g. steel factory. Actors: oil extraction and production companies; oil exporting nations; Organisation for Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC); financial stakeholders in oil extracting companies. It is not always clear who is an actor or who is a stakeholder to an issue. In global politics, lots of things are open to interpretation and are debatable. Task: Choose a political issue and identify some of the stakeholders and actors. Actors Stakeholders Political issue: 3  2.1 States What is the difference between international relations and global politics? International relations or international politics is the study of the relationships and interactions between states. Global politics is broader because it recognises that although states continue to be the main units that structure our world, political issues and many of the most powerful political actors are often global. For example, the private energy company Shell is a transnational organisation (TNC), and the Rainforest Alliance is an international nongovernmental organisation (INGO). That said, because our global population and the Earth is foremost divided into states, states are an important object for study in global politics. We look at:  the processes and events that happen within states,  the relationships between states,  the relationships between states and non-state actors. For example, if we took the case study of the political coup d'état in Niger in 2023, we might study:  the causes of the coup, how it happened and its impacts for Niger,  connections to other states (e.g. the historic and current (neo)colonial relationships to France),  roles of international organisations and private companies in facilitating, reporting on, responding to the coup. What is a state? There is no single definition, our understandings of what ‘states’ are change over time and place. In section 1.3 Sovereignty in global politics we will look at this in further detail. The modern mainstream understanding is based on the Seventh International Conference of American States, held in Montevideo, Uruguay in 1933. Article 1 of the Montevideo Convention agreed the following: “The State as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: a) a permanent population; b) a defined territory; c) government; d) capacity to enter into relations with the other States.” 1 This understanding draws on three central concepts of global politics: power, sovereignty, and legitimacy. In the coming modules we will examine each of these in more detail. Ǫuestions: 1) Do you think any of these characteristics should be removed? 2) Are there any key characteristics that you think are missing from these definitions of what makes a state? 3) Make a list of the responsibilities that you think all modern states have towards each other states and towards their populations. (This is not to say all states meet these responsibilities!) 1 UN Treaties, ‘Convention on Rights and Duties of States Adopted by the Seventh International Conference of American States’, Multilateral agreement (Montevideo, 26 December 1933), https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/LON/Volume%20165/v165.pdf. 4 Introducing theory By examining the actions and interactions of states we can develop theories about how states behave. Theories are useful as they provide a framework for analysing political issues. Instead of seeing political events as unique, theories help us see patterns and trends and make predictions. For example, by studying national protest movements we know that inequality, relative poverty, and unemployment are often the underlying causes of people protesting against a government. In global politics, individual thinkers have different theories based on their observations of political events and issues. We cluster these theories into groups that share similar opinions. The diagram shows some of the key global politics theories you will cover in the course. Constructivism Postcolonialism Realism Theories of global politics Feminism Liberalism Environmentalism Realism is one theory that focuses on the power of the state. In brief terms, realists see states as existing in a state system of anarchy. There is no single overarching authority above states and therefore how a state behaves towards other states depends on the amount of power it has. In this model, states are focused on their self-interests and self-defence. Realists think that military power is critical to the survival of a state. You will learn more about realism later. Sensitivity: When discussing the topic of states, we must acknowledge that most states and nations are contested, and that people have different perspectives- often with strong beliefs. Thus, we must be sensitive in how we approach conversations and of the language we use in essay writing. The following section looks at what is a state, state borders, and who is/ is not part of a state. As the central organizing unit of global population and due to its relationship to individual and group identity, these debates are often the source of disagreement, violence and conflict. 5  What is a nation? A nation can be defined in several ways. Commonly, a nation refers to a large group of people who share a common identity and constitute an ‘imagined community’. The identity of the nation is usually grounded on a common historical, ethnic, religious, or linguistic background. A key part is national memory: what the nation chooses to remember, and the narratives it uses are central to its identity. In 1983, Benedict Anderson, an Irish political scientist, published a book titled ‘Imagined Communities’. He sought to understand nationalism, and, like many Western thinkers, European and Western history are central to his work. If you study anthropology or sociology, you are also likely to come across him. Anderson defined nations as: 1. Imagined because “members will never know most of their fellow-members”. 2. It is imagined as limited, as nations have "finite, if elastic boundaries, beyond which lie other nations”. 3. It is imagined as sovereign as nations were conceived at a time when most people no longer believed in Empires. 4. It is imaged as a community because "regardless of the actual inequality and exploitation that may prevail in each, the nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship. Ultimately it is this fraternity that makes it possible, over the past two centuries, for so many millions of people, not so much to kill, as willingly to die for such limited imaginings.”2 The theory of constructivism emphasises that, in global politics, many ‘facts’ and ‘norms’ are socially constructed. If you asked 100 people to describe their national identity, you would have many answers. What is a nation-state? If we combine a nation with our previous understandings of a state, the result is a nation-state. These occur when the political and national boundaries of a state align with those of a single cultural, ethnic, linguistic and/ or historical nation. Completely homogenous nation-states are rare. Two commonly cited examples are Iceland and Japan. Japan’s population is 97.8% Japanese with the remainder a combination of foreign nationalities and indigenous ethnic groups. Most nation-states contain multiple communal identities. These are sometimes referred to as minorities, but not necessarily. These identities may be based on religion, ethnicity, tribes, clans, language or historical experiences. Sometimes, these communities live in/ historically lived in specific geographic areas of the state. For example, see the map of Nigeria. Task: In pairs, describe the ethnic diversity found in a country you identify with. 2 Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, Revised edition. (London: Verso, 2006), 14–15. 6 What is a multi-nation state? A multi-nation state is a state containing a national minority which is only found within this state, and which effectively is an internal state. For example, Ǫuebec in Canada, Catalonia and Galicia in Spain. Often these internal states may have a degree of political power or autonomy. This definition is highly debatable, for example, should we consider indigenous communities in Brazil as meeting this definition? Source: Britannica What are micro-nations and micro-states? A micronation is an entity that claims to be an independent state but whose sovereignty is not recognized by the international community. Microstates, such as Liechtenstein or Vatican City, are sovereign states with extremely small territories. They are internationally recognized. Video: "How to Create a Country" YouTube What is a stateless nation? These are also nations that do not have states. For example, Kurdish peoples, Rohingya, Roma peoples, Sahwari peoples and many other indigenous communities. Frequently- though not always- the reason why these nations do not have a state, whilst others do, is because of how European colonial powers drew borders to divide land between each other. E.g. the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The Sykes-Picot Agreement was a secret treaty between the UK, France and Russia to partition the defeated Ottoman Empire into territories. These borders split up contiguous populations like the Kurds and Druze which left them without their own states, and they continue to be persecuted minorities in multiple countries. Postcolonialism is a theory that emphasises the ongoing significance of colonial actions and experiences. It argues that to understand the contemporary world, we have to examine colonial history. Source: Britannica Task: Create a flow-diagram using yes/no questions to help distinguish between states, nation states, stateless nations, multination states, something else? You will be given a list of entities to pass through your flow-diagram to see if it works. 7 2.2 Types of state government There are many terms that you might have heard to describe the types of state governments. For example, democracies, illiberal democracies, autocracies, dictatorships, monarchies, authoritarian regimes. Unfortunately, whilst you might be hoping that this section will present them in one easy diagram and give a clear definition of each this isn’t possible. Like many key terms in global politics, there is debate about how to categorise different types of state government, which words to use, and even when people agree on the word, there is debate over the criteria for each type and then another set of debate about which states fit which criteria. Moreover, if we translate a word, such as autocracy, we are likely to discover a whole other set of understandings and terms. Task: Research and write your own definitions of the following types of state government. Try to include some example states. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Democracy ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Illiberal democracy ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Autocracy ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Monarchy ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Dictatorship ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Military regime ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8  What is a ‘typology’? To help structure our world, we often use a typology to categorise types of a ‘thing’. For example, in geology we look at types of rock. Often these typologies are turned into scales or spectrums with criteria to determine which ‘type’. For example, in the Peace and Conflict modules, we will study typologies of violence, conflict, and peace. We’ve already seen one typology in the difference between types of states. What makes global politics exciting (I think) is that these typologies are constructed, they are imagined. This means that academics spend time debating them, creating their own versions, and criticising other people’s typologies. This can also be a bit annoying because if you are looking for a simple answer, it often doesn’t exist. Measuring democracy To give an idea of how many typologies are out there, the list below contains a small number of of the projects/ actors that produce their own typologies and criteria to calculate how democratic/ undemocratic each state is. There are many more than these six. - Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) by the V-Dem project - Regimes of the World (RoW) by Lührmann et al. (2018), which use V-Dem data - Polity by the Center for Systemic Peace - Freedom House’s (FH) Freedom in the World - Bertelsmann Transformation Index (BTI) by the Bertelsmann Foundation - Economist Intelligence Unit’s (EIU) Democracy Index Example: The Democracy Index, by the Economist Intelligence Unit.3 How EIU measures democracy Indicators Ratings Types of regimes 0 (highly undemocratic) to Based on their average score, each country The Democracy Index is based 10 (highly democratic) is classified as one of four types of on 60 indicators, grouped into regimes: These ratings are given five categories: electoral mostly through evaluations - “full democracies” process and pluralism; by own country experts, - “flawed democracies” functioning of government; some evaluations by - “hybrid regimes” political participation; political representative surveys of - “authoritarian regimes”. culture; and civil liberties. regular citizens 3 Bastian Herre and Max Roser, ‘Democracy Data: How Sources Differ and When to Use Which One’, Our World in Data, 27 February 2024, https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement. 9 Sources: https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy-index-2023 https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement Caution: When we consider which typology we want to use, we must consider who made them and what the author’s perspective is. All of the typologies listed previously for measuring democracy take the political view that states should aspire to be democratic, that individual freedom and transparency are what “good” states should be. Optional video: Search on YouTube for the video: Which Country is the Most Democratic? - TLDR News Or type: https://youtu.be/I7YMJKX52NE?si=A3XCJpWEiTy_lYbl 10 2.3 Political spectrums Another dimension of a state government is the political spectrum. You probably frequently hear the terms “left-wing” and “right wing” when people are discussing politics, particularly in the West. A common view places political opinions on a unidimensional spectrum that probably looks something like this: The problem with this view is that it’s lazy, false and misleading. The political beliefs and values of “moderate”, “left-wing” or “right-wing” are social constructs. Four problems with this diagram are: 1) The use of language implies that the centre is “good”. 2) Most individuals have a wide range of views on different political issues. A person might want low taxes and free healthcare for all citizens. Another person might want low immigration and support LGBTǪ issues. 3) Political opinions are dynamic and change over time. A view that was once considered ‘far left’ may become ‘moderate’. For example, in the 1970s in the USA, “left-wing” groups campaigned against globalisation to protect factory jobs, today anti-globalisation is generally seen as a “right wing” sentiment. 4) Often political parties are associated directly to a position on the left-right spectrum. However, because the policy beliefs are dynamic it can mean groups of people who historically opposed a political party, then become supporters as the political values change. Alternative attempts to map political views add more axes. Sources: Wikipedia 11 Examples of policy debates. The following presents issues as though they are binary which isn’t true but gives you an idea of some frequent debates. Foreign policy debates: Economic policy debates:  Interventionism v non-interventionism  Low state taxes v high state taxes  Multilateralism v unilateralism v isolationism  National infrastructure v private infrastructure (e.g. water, transport, energy, Social policy debates: education, healthcare)  Low welfare provision v high welfare provision  Free trade v protectionism  Encourage foreign direct investment v protect against foreign direct investment Task: Give some examples of social debates. 2.4 Subnational and local governments Regardless of whether the state is a democracy or an autocracy, regional and local governments usually play an important role. This is because subnational government structures often have direct power over state infrastructure in their area. Whilst central government decides national policies and budgets, it is often up to regional and local governments to implement these policies and spend their allocated budgets. For example, they are often responsible for transportation infrastructure (e.g. building and maintaining roads), urban planning, waste management, education, healthcare. Even if specific services are privatised, the subnational government, like the state government, may be responsible for offering the contracts to private companies. Regional and local governments are also often responsible for attracting economic investment and they may compete against other subnational governments. For example, if a manufacturer is choosing where to build a factory, local governments will compete to attract them to locate in their area to boost their local economy and provide jobs. Example: Germany Germany is a federal parliamentary republic defined by the Basic Law (Grundgesetz), with 16 federal states (Länder), each having its own government and parliament. The federal government comprises the President, a largely ceremonial head of state; the Chancellor, who holds executive power; the Bundestag, elected by citizens and responsible for federal legislation; and the Bundesrat, representing the Länder in federal law-making. Local government operates on two levels: municipalities (Gemeinden) and counties (Landkreise). Municipalities, governed by an elected Municipal Council (Gemeinderat) and led by a Mayor (Bürgermeister), handle local policies and services. Counties, encompassing multiple municipalities, are governed by a County Council (Kreistag) and led by a Landrat, addressing broader regional issues. This structure ensures a balance of power between national, state, and local governance. 12 Pahl-Weber, Elke, and Dietrich Henckel. The planning system and planning terms in Germany: A glossary. No. 7. Studies in Spatial Development, 2008. 13 2.5 Political parties In all types of political system, be that a democracy or an autocracy, there will be groups of people who share a view of how the state should run and what political and economic decisions should be made. These networks of individuals coordinate their activities to maximise power for their group. These groups can be formal structures and informal groups. They also exist at different scales, and with vastly different amounts of transparency to the public. In democracies and electoral autocracies, political parties are the recognised formal grouping. The goal of political parties is to gain power by being elected and re-elected. In democracies, political parties are often made up of democratically elected individuals and members. Any citizen of the state can choose to be a registered member of the political party. Within political parties there are also formal and informal groups. Again, these may be transparent to the public or hidden. Critics point out that in democracies, the amount of power that donors, lobby groups and powerful individuals have over political parties undermines how democratic these groups really are. Example: Political parties in the USA The USA is chosen because global U.S. American power means that more students have a basic knowledge of their democratic system and not because it is the “best” model. You do not need to have a detailed understanding of U.S. domestic political structures for IB Global politics, the system is complicated and the diagram below is highly simplified. In the USA, political action committees (PACs) are the legally recognised groupings that fund political campaigns. You are of course welcome to do more research about U.S. political parties. Democrats Republicans Other political parties Formal and informal sub-groups: Formal and informal sub- Green parties groups: Tea Party Movement Reform Party New democrats Heritage Foundation Libertarian Party Progressives American Action Socialist Party Network Justice Democrats Constitution Party Never Trump movement Majority Forward Natural Law Party Rockbridge Network The Squad (in Congress) Task: Choose one electoral autocracy or democracy and do research to answer the following: 1. What are the main political parties? Add the dates of when they were founded. 2. Can you find identify some of the formally organised sub-groups within one or more of these political parties? Challenge: can you find out the names of some of the least transparent political sub-groups? 14 2.6 Political leaders Political leaders might be international, national, regional or local. They might be elected or unelected. They might be part of a wider system, for example, a leader of a political party, or they might be an outsider. Political leaders might be ‘career politicians’, or they might join politics after other careers. Some political leaders become leaders almost by accident. For example, when she was 15, Greta Thunberg probably didn’t expect to become the political leader she now is. Task: 1) In small groups, without using the internet, how many names of political leaders can you think of that fit the following descriptions? They must be alive today. Optional: Mix with other groups, do you have any identical answers?  Elected national leader  Unelected national leader  Military leader  Local political leader  Political leader on a specific issue  Religious leader  Environmental political leader  Leader of an illegal political organisation  Political leader who isn’t a mainstream politician  Political leader who is seen as a “celebrity”  Political leader who has been accused of crimes (including corruption)  Political leader who won power through violence  Political leader who is suspected of being put into power by foreign actors  Political leader you admire Reflection: In groups discuss the following.  How many of the political leaders named by the group are women?  What might the barriers be to women becoming political leaders?  Why might political leaders within a minority also face barriers?  Who in your group would like to be a political leader? Feminism(s), like constructivism and postcolonialism, is an interdisciplinary theory. In the context of global politics feminism allows us to examine the power relations and experiences of women in global issues. For example, peace and conflict studies traditionally focuses on the role and experiences of men. Women are often portrayed only as victims of war when they often play vital roles. This includes female soldiers and leaders, as nurses, providers, carers, educators, farmers. In many conflicts women also play a unique role by hiding political fugitives, activists, guerilla fighters or terrorists. 15 2.7 Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) An IGO is a group of states that have formed a recognised organisation. Members in IGOs have normally signed a treaty, or charter, so they are legally recognised as part of the IGO. Task: 1) Name as many IGOs as you can in 90 seconds on scrap paper. 2) In your small group, write each one on a different post-it note. 3) Sort your IGOs into groups. 4) Explain the criteria for your typology to another group. 5) Having heard various typologies, draw a diagram that you think helps you to distinguish between different types of IGO. Add examples. Although on paper, states have equal power within an IGO, in practice, some states have more power than others within IGOs. For example, the power of the USA in the UN General Assembly is theoretically the same as that of Indonesia. During the course you will encounter many examples of this inequality. Like realism, the theory of liberalism sees states as the most important unit of analysis in global politics. However, they disagree with realists who say that the world is in a state of anarchy. They emphasise the role of IGOs and international law as providing a framework for states to operate in. 16 Detailed example: Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) Exam tips: In Global politics, there are frequently exam questions about IGOs. It is important that you know a range of examples. You should know details about their work, their history, where they work, their organisational structure and their finances. Name of IGO: History and values Finances/ funding Purpose Structure Positive impacts Criticisms Example of a specific project the IGO works on: (include facts and statistics) Connections to: Peace and conflict: Rights and justice: Development and sustainability: Essay question: Evaluate the claim that sovereign states become less powerful when they join intergovernmental organizations (IGOs). 17  2.8 Organized civil society (including non-governmental organisations) Distinguishing between civil society, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), private organisations and state affiliated organisations is complicated. For example, whilst NGOs are meant to be non-profit organisations that operate outside of the influence of government, in fact many NGOs receive national government or local government funding. Task: Read and highlight the extract from a 2013 report by the UN Development Programme.4 NGOs and CSOs: a note on terminology Many aid actors, particularly among governments in developing countries, refer to ‘NGOs’ and their role in international aid and development cooperation. But the phrase ‘NGO’ is contested terminology, and for many has been subsumed within a broader category of ‘civil society organizations’ or ‘CSOs’. CSOs are voluntary organizations with governance and direction coming from citizens or constituency members, without significant government-controlled participation or representation. There are many types of CSOs involved in delivering aid, including faith-based groups, trade unions, professional associations, internationally affiliated organizations with branches in many different countries etc. ‘NGO’ is sometimes used interchangeably with ‘CSO’, but NGOs should be properly understood as a subset of CSOs involved in development cooperation, albeit often one with no clear boundaries. Constituency-based organizations, such as trade unions or professional associations, for example, often do not self-identify as NGOs, but rather as CSOs. International NGOs (INGOs) can be seen as a distinct category among non-state actors, which have been very prominent in development cooperation during the past decade. They constitute a subset of NGOs in which coalitions or families of NGOs, based in various donor and developing countries, have formally associated in an international or global governance structure. These international structures coordinate their ‘NGO family’ programming at the global level. This characteristic changes the INGO’s relationship with a given donor or public in an individual donor country as these organizations develop, finance and promote programmes across donor countries. Some well-known examples are World Vision International, CARE International and Save the Children International. Task: 1) How important do you think organized civil society is in global politics? 2) Have you ever been involved in a CSO or NGO? Choose one NGO that you feel has a positive impact, it could be local or global in scale. 1) Spend some time researching its activities. 2) Explain to your group why you think your NGO should be supported. 4 UNDP, Working with Civil Society in Foreign Aid (UNDP, 2013), https://www.undp.org/china/publications/working-civil-society-foreign-aid. 18 Global politics basics and the contemporary rule https://www.glopopolis.org/2026/basics Contexts Real-world context is at the heart of the global politics course. How in-depth you study a context changes whether it is an 'example', a 'case', or a 'case study'. A case study is the most detailed and will take more time. The IB Global politics subject guide clearly states that it is important real-world contexts come from different scales and should be diverse. Diversity In the IB Global politics course, 'diversity' refers to the range of contexts and real-world examples. Through the course you will study diverse cultural, geographical, economic and institutional contexts. In assessments, avoid only using examples from one region or country. You need to show global knowledge. This is a global politics course, not a regional or national politics course. The contemporary rule Examples, cases and cases studies should be contemporary. The IB Global politics course views "contemporary" as events occurring approximately over the past two decades. Of course, to understand global politics today, we have to look at history. However, the emphasis of your study should be contemporary. For example, to understand the contemporary political relations between Argentina and the United Kingdom it is important to understand the colonial history of the Islas Malvinas (Falkland Islands). However, if you were writing about this as a case in an essay, a higher proportion of your discussion should be about recent events. How many examples, cases and case studies do I need? This is completely up to you. Whilst the number doesn't matter, it is important that you can discuss global politics at different scales and you have a diverse range of real-world contexts to draw on. The more real-world contexts you study, the more you will see patterns, similarities and differences in how peoples and places experience global politics. 19 2.9 Social movements Social movements are groups who share an opinion about a political issue. They are called ‘movement’ rather than ‘group’ because they are more organically organised. In all types of state, including democracies, governments frequently try to close these movements down. This usually includes monitoring their communications and using undercover agents to inform about the group’s activities. Often social movements have a short lifespan. They might:  succeed in their goal,  make some progress on their issue,  become an established formal group,  fracture apart because of disagreements,  people give up,  the state represses the movement. Examples include:  Marea Verde (Green Wave): an abortion-rights movement across the Americas. It drew its name from green bandanas worn in Argentinian protests in 2003. The movement contributed to the 2020 legalisation of abortion Argentina and the 2022 decriminalization of abortion in Colombia.  #EndSARS: a social movement against police brutality in Nigeria. Solidarity protests were held internationally in multiple countries.  Anti-transgender Movement: an international transphobic movement that seeks to restrict the rights of transgender and non-binary peoples. Whilst some social movements are supported by people with similar politics, others are cross- sectional. For example, COVID pandemic anti-vaccine and anti-lockdown protesters often had diverse political opinions and in other contexts would have marched against each other. It is generally problematic to view social movements as having fixed “good”/”bad” causes. In the same way you might support/ dislike specific political policies of a government, so too can you support/ dislike some aspects of a social movement. You might also support a social movement but disagree with some of the actions taken by other supporters. For example, in 2023 a photo of an Israeli soldier holding an LGBTǪ+ flag in the Gaza strip was published. This was abhorrent to many LGBTǪ+ community members and allies. Private companies, particularly in the West, sometimes support social movements. This might be because of the opinions of their CEOs and leadership, pressure from employees or for marketing reasons. They are often criticised when they do/ do not give their support for social movements. Book recommendation: The Oxford Handbook of Latin American Social Movements Discussion questions:  Which social movements have been important to you personally?  Which social movements do you find most challenging to your politics?  Should private companies make political statements in support of social movements?  Should companies be able to fire employees for their support of social movements (including online)? 20  Should employees of the state, e.g. police, teachers, healthcare professionals, be allowed to wear symbols in support of social movements? Should they be allowed to post their support on social media? Activity: create a 5 minute presentation on a social movement. The movement must fit the contemporary rule. 2.10 Resistance movements Whilst a social movement wants to bring about political change. A resistance movement directly seeks to resist and prevent a political policy. The movement may be violent or non-violent. They may be legal or illegal as per the law of the state. These terms can be used to mean different things by different people which means there isn’t a clear distinction. Perhaps we could call Fridays For Future a social movement, and Extinction Rebellion a resistance movement? This is debatable. We will learn more about civil unrest, including peaceful and violent protests in the Rights and Justice unit and the Peace and Conflict unit. Environmentalism is a theory that places emphasis on our natural world. Instead of viewing states as the most important unit of analysis in global politics, it views politics and power through the perspective of our natural world. Like most other theories, environmentalism can be normative. This means that it isn’t politically neutral. When we analyse global politics through environmentalism, we are often doing so with the political objective of improving protections for our shared planet. Often mainstream global politics is highly anthropocentric. Indigenous groups are frequently given as an example of perspectives that aren’t as anthropocentric as classical Western thought because they place greater emphasis on nature rather than only human life. Whilst often true, this brings a whole new discussion of how we stereotype indigenous communities and indigenous beliefs. 2.11 Private actors/ companies This is a wide category of actors who have power over politics and there are too many types to list.  A private actor could be a donor to political parties, or they could be a company that donates to a political lobby group.  Private actors may influence politics in legal ways and/ or illegal ways.  Private actors might work independently or with others, sometimes they are networked together as a group of powerful individuals/ companies.  Private actors may be public in their political affiliations and opinions, or they could prioritise secrecy. (This is also why it can be difficult to distinguish conspiracy theories from facts). 21  Example 1: Glencore, a Swiss multinational trading and mining company has been fined for bribery and corruption in multiple countries including Brazil, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, South Sudan, and the USA.6 Example 2: The National Rifle Association in the USA campaigns heavily against policies that try to introduce gun controls. Example 3: the Tata family has a long history of being politically connected. They continue to donate large amounts of money to political A cartoon from the Denver Post about NRA’s parties in India.5 financial power over the U.S. congress. It is often difficult for political leaders to reject or diminish the power of private actors and companies. However, sometimes, governments are successful in limiting the political power of specific individuals or groups. For example, the Chinese government broke up the political power of Jack Ma’s Alibaba group. This process also involved the temporary disappearance of Jack Ma. He is not the first powerful person to disappear. In many countries there is a similar level of concern about the power that technology and social media companies have. This is perhaps because these companies have direct impact on the daily life of individuals and play a role in shaping their opinions and political views. Jack Ma and Elon Musk in 2019 -> 5 ‘Tatas Are the Largest Political Donors, BJP Biggest Recipient: ADR Report’, The Times of India, 16 October 2020, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/tatas-are-the-biggest-political-donors-bjp-biggest-recipient-adr- report/articleshow/78696078.cms. 6 Henry Pope, ‘Glencore Ordered to Pay £280M for Bribery Scandal Across Africa’, Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, 4 November 2022, https://www.occrp.org/en/daily/16987-glencore-ordered-to-pay-280m-for- bribery-scandal-across-africa. 22 2.12 Interest and pressure groups Interest groups and lobby groups are formal organizations with a political agenda who aim to influence political decision-making. All states have interest groups, what varies is the degree of regulation around them. These groups can have significant power.  They might commission reports on a political issue and campaign for a change to public policy.  They may host events and conferences to bring together groups of people, including politicians, academic researches, industry specialists, powerful individuals and discuss a theme.  They might offer politicians training, pay for trips, or help politicians with positive media coverage. Interest groups may represent the interests of a particular industry or a specific issue. Task: Choose a country and give an example of one industry and one issue based group. How powerful are they? Can you give an example of a political decision they influenced? In pairs, exchange your answers. Explain who each interest or lobby group are. Country Industry based interest or lobby group Issue based interest or lobby group 2.13 Formal and informal political forums Formal and informal political forums are political events attended by actors to debate political issues. Formal political forums Most of these forums are organised by intergovernmental organisations such as the UN. For example, the UNFCCC organises the annual Conference of the Parties (COP) which is a political forum attended by states with the aim of limiting global warming. Each year national representatives negotiate on climate related issues and at the end an agreement is published. Outside of the formal event, there are also informal sessions and protests- some of which might be attended or led by IB students. Task: List two more examples of formal political forums. 1. 2. 23  Informal political forums These political spaces are organised with less official rules. They might be a local, national, or an international meeting. At the international level, they might include state representatives and politicians as well as non-state representatives from the private sector, interest groups, powerful individuals, non-governmental organisations etc. Example 1: Davos Example 2: National Conservatism Conference The World Economic Forum hosts an In 2024, the NCC brought together politicians and other annual meeting in Davos, Switzerland that actors for a political forum on the future of conservatism brings together many powerful individuals in Europe. A Brussels district Mayor banned it for ‘security’ including politicians, bankers, CEOs, reasons and the police were sent to close it down. A court billionaire investors, to discuss political then overturned this and ruled the event must continue. and economic policies. Read the Wikipedia page on the NCC. Do you think the In 2016 it was revealed that of the 2,500 event should have been closed down? participants, less than 18% were women.7 Does it matter what type of political views were Do gender gaps at political forums matter? represented or is it a matter of free speech? Example 3: The annual Bilderberg Meeting. Its website says: “Since its inaugural Meeting in 1954, the annual Bilderberg Meeting has been a forum for informal discussions to foster dialogue between Europe and North America. Every year, approx. 130 political leaders and experts from industry, finance, labour, academia and the media are invited to take part in the Meeting. About two thirds of the participants come from Europe and the rest from North America; one third from politics and government and the rest from other fields. The Meeting is a forum for informal discussions about major issues. The Meetings are held under the Chatham House Rule, which states that participants are free to use the information received, but neither the identity nor the affiliation of the speaker(s) nor of any other participant may be revealed. Thanks to the private nature of the Meeting, the participants take part as individuals rather than in any official capacity, and hence are not bound by the conventions of their office or by pre-agreed positions. As such, they can take time to listen, reflect and gather insights. There is no detailed agenda, no resolutions are proposed, no votes are taken, and no policy statements are issued.”8 7 Alexandra Stevenson, ‘A Push for Gender Equality at the Davos World Economic Forum, and Beyond’, The New York Times, 19 January 2016, sec. Business, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/20/business/dealbook/a-push- for-gender-equality-at-the-world-economic-forum-and-beyond.html. 8 ‘About Bilderberg Meetings’, accessed 27 April 2024, https://www.bilderbergmeetings.org/. 24  From a postcolonial perspective, these informal political forums are a key mechanism through which unequal power relations are maintained. Who gets to attend the events? Why are they invited? Whose political opinions are (not) represented? How much agenda-setting power does the forum have? Protesters at a Bilderberg Meeting 9 Task: All three of these examples are forums primarily dominated by Europeans and North Americans. Give three examples of formal and/ or informal forums that are not held in Europe or North America. 9 ‘Bilderberg Meetings | History & Facts | Britannica’, accessed 27 April 2024, https://www.britannica.com/event/Bilderberg-Conference. 25  2.14 The media The traditional media includes newspapers, magazines, 2023 UK survey journals, television, film, radio, podcasts. Content is Television (broadcast & online) produced by people who are professionals, meaning they Newspapers (print & online) are paid to do their job. Some media outlets are Radio government affiliated and are all or partly government Social media funded, for example, the BBC, Al Jazeera, CCTV. Some are privately owned, such as NDTV, Fox News. 95 58 75+ Many media outlets are also owned by wealthy 43 individuals, for example, News Corp (look it up online) is 16 owned by Rupert Murdoch, whilst Jeff Bezos owns The Washington Post and other news outlets. 92 52 65-74 Often people say that a free media is a sign of a healthy 47 democracy, however, in many countries media outlets are 24 owned by a small number of companies. On the other 74 hand, social media is owned by even fewer companies. 37 35-44 Can the media ever be unbiased? 37 56 Some news and media companies claim they are politically neutral whilst others are clear about their 58 33 political ideology, for example, Democracy Now! 25-34 28 However, no media companies are ever objective. The 66 BBC is often given as an example of an ‘objective’ media company. The BBC mission and values says it must 53 28 “provide impartial news” but it also must “act in the public 16-24 interest” (meaning what the government deems in the 25 71 interest of the British public). In political debates they must give multiple perspectives, critics argue that they 0 50 100 still choose who to give a platform to. Where do British adults get their news?10 Social media On the one hand, social media allows people to learn about events that the mainstream (traditional) media, don’t cover. On the other hand, there is no fact-checking or accountability to people posting. It is important to think about who has and who does not have access to online news and social media. It is also important to question how a specific social media company interacts with the state, with politicians, and with law enforcement agencies. Even if the television and radio numbers are decreasing, from the perspective of a politicians (and other individuals), traditional media continues to be a greater concern. The relationship between the media and government is sometimes called the media-industrial-complex. 10 Ofcom, ‘News Consumption in the UK’, Ofcom, 20 July 2023, https://www.ofcom.org.uk/research-and-data/tv- radio-and-on-demand/news-media/news-consumption. 26 Task: Complete the table of pros and cons about social media. Pros Cons Task: Choose a news article about a political issue. 1) Highlight where the article reveals its sources of information. 2) Annotate sentences that reveal possible bias. 3) Write a paragraph giving the pros and cons of how the article has covered the event. 27 2.15 Re-cap task: Political actor bingo Task: Walk around the classroom and ask one person to give you one example for a prompt. Add the student’s name. You cannot ask the same person for more than two answers. (Adjust for the size of the class). The first person to complete 15 boxes wins. NGO: Democratic state: Social movement Name: Name: Name: Private actor: Stateless nation: Flawed democracy: Name: Name: Name: Authoritarian regime Political leader: Multi-nation state: Name: Name: Name: IGO: Media outlet: Private actor: Name: Name: Name: Industry-based interest group: Informal political forum: Political party: Name: Name: Name: 28 3 Systems—structures and dynamics 4 Legal frameworks, norms and institutions All of the actors covered in this module operate within systems. Systems thinking is an approach to understanding and analysing complex phenomena by examining the interactions, relationships and interdependencies among components within a larger system. It considers both the structure and the dynamics of the system, emphasizing feedback loops, causal relationships and the flow of information and resources. By examining the relationships between various components and the system's context, systems thinking seeks to uncover patterns, identify leverage points, and understand how changes in one part of the system can have ripple effects throughout the entire system. Source: IB Global politics TSM. At the state level there are structures and dynamics that direct the relationships between national government and subnational governments. There are more structures and dynamics which impact how political leaders, civil society, private companies can act. These rules may be explicit, for example written in law, legislation or policies, or they may be unwritten norms. There is often a tension between people who think a state needs more norms, and people who think that these can bring new problems. Many of a state’s systems are articulated through its institutions and civil servants including judiciary and police, military, immigration institutions etc. At the global level, structures and dynamics between states also operate with explicit and unwritten dynamics, for example, international law and conventions. Many of the formal structures are intergovernmental organisations, for example, the UN and ICC are the institutions that oversee the legal frameworks. At the global level, there are also norms of how states should behave towards each other, for example, how political leaders and diplomats behave and interact with each other. Throughout the course, we will look at specific examples of international law and institutions and delve deeper into how they operate and how much power they have. 29 5 Exam preparation: Paper 2 Paper 2 is an extended response paper based on the common SL and HL thematic studies. Candidates must answer two questions: one essay from section A (comprising questions from each of the thematic studies) and one essay from section B (comprising integrating questions). Within each thematic study (Peace and conflict, Rights and justice, and Development and sustainability), you will study the interactions of political stakeholders and actors and specific systems, legal frameworks, norms and institutions. We don’t have enough knowledge to answer these essay questions yet but these are some examples from the old syllabus to give you an idea of where we are heading:  Evaluate the claim that sovereign states become less powerful when they join intergovernmental organizations (IGOs).  “The contribution of states to sustainable development is greater than that of non- governmental organizations (NGOs).” Evaluate this view.  Evaluate the claim that sovereign states become less powerful when they join intergovernmental organizations (IGOs).  With reference to political and institutional factors, discuss the view that development is more likely to be promoted at the global, rather than local, level. 30