Medieval Period PDF

THE WEST IN THE MIDDLE AGES (Medieval Period) People use the phrase “Middle Ages” to describe Europe between the fall of Rome and the beginning of the Renaissance in the 14th century. The Middle Ages: Birth of an Idea  The phrase “Middle Ages” tells us more about the Renaissance that followed it t...

THE WEST IN THE MIDDLE AGES (Medieval Period) People use the phrase “Middle Ages” to describe Europe between the fall of Rome and the beginning of the Renaissance in the 14th century. The Middle Ages: Birth of an Idea  The phrase “Middle Ages” tells us more about the Renaissance that followed it than it does about the era itself.  Starting around the 14th century, European thinkers, writers and artists began to look back and celebrate the art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome.  Middle or Dark Age - the period after the fall of Rome Middle Age Timeline  A long period of history from 500 AD to 1500 AD;  Covers the time from the fall of the Roman Empire to the rise of the Ottoman Empire;  A time of castles and peasants, guilds and monasteries, cathedrals and crusades; and  Includes great leaders such as Joan of Arc and Charlemagne and major events such as the Black Plague and the rise of Islam. Middle Ages, Medieval Times, Dark Ages: What's the Difference? When people use the terms Medieval Times, Middle Ages, and Dark Ages they are generally referring to the same period of time. The Dark Ages is usually referring to the first half of the Middle Ages from 500 to 1000 AD. After the fall of the Roman Empire, a lot of the Roman culture and knowledge was lost. This included art, technology, engineering, and history. Historians know a lot about Europe during the Roman Empire because the Romans kept excellent records of all that happened. However, the time after the Romans is "dark" to historians because there was no central government recording events. This is why historians call this time the Dark Ages. Although the term Middle Ages covers the years between 500 and 1500 throughout the world. Date Event 350 Barbaric invasions (350 - 800 A.D.). A.D. Barbaric tribes come into the Roman lands to steal and to find better places to live. Such groups include the Anglo-Saxons, the Vandals, the Visogoths, and the Huns. Some keep moving to new areas. Some settle and make their conquered lands their home. 410 Rome falls (410 - 476 A.D.) A.D. The Roman Empire has been split into two sections. The Western Roman Empire is still ruled by Rome. In 410 the Visogoth king, Alaric, attacks Rome for three days. In 476 the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus, is thrown out of Rome by German invader Odoacer. 412 Eastern Roman Empire continues (412 - 565 A.D.) A.D. Emperor Constantine I has made Constantinople his capital in 330. About 412, protective walls are built to keep the city safe from invaders. Justinian I rules from 527- 565. He wants to reunite the western and eastern empires, but cannot do so. 741 Muslim invasions halted (741 - 732 A.D.) A.D. Along with barbarians from the north, Muslims begin to conquer lands from the south. Charles Martel, the Frank king, stops the Muslims' northward push in 732. 768 Charlemagne rules (768 - 814 A.D.) A.D. Charles Martel's grandson, Charlemagne, becomes the new Frank king. He desires to spread Christianity. As he conquers land, he extends his faith. He is crowned "Emperor of the Romans" in 800 by Pope Leo III. Charlemagne dies in 814. The first castles are built around this time. 840 A divided kingdom. A.D. After Charlemagne's son dies, the kingdom is split into three. Raids into western Europe increase. In order to protect themselves, kingships are created. 871 Alfred the Great of England rules (871 - 899 A.D.) A.D. Alfred the Great defeats the Danes (Vikings) in 878. In 886 he captures London. He signs a treaty, splitting England between him and the Danes. As a ruler Alfred encourages education by establishing schools. 1000 City states and feudal systems (1000 - 1200 A.D.) A.D. Rome, Florence, Venice, and other Italians towns become city-states. The feudal system begins. Kings give sections of land called fiefs to lords in exchange for help during wars. The lords can give land to knights. The peasants work the land in exchange for food and protection. 1096 First Crusade (About 1096 - 1099 A.D.) A.D. Religious people go on pilgrimages to visit sacred Biblical sites. When the Seljuk Turks rule, they forbid visits to the Holy Land. The Pope calls for a crusade against the Seljuks. Eventually the crusaders take the city of Jerusalem. There will be nine crusades in all between now and1272. 1135 Stained glass and gothic style (About 1135 - 1144 A.D. A.D.) St. Denis Abbey in Paris is rebuilt in the Gothic style, the first church to use this design. The church also uses stained glass windows. By this time there are many Catholic monasteries in France. Some monks spend their days hand-copying holy books and drawing beautiful designs along the borders.  1215 Magna Carta is signed. A.D Rebels oppose King John of England. But they have no ruler to take his place. Instead they have him sign a document, the Magna Carta, stating that there is no divine right of kings. 1337 The Hundred Years War (1337 - 1453 A.D.) A.D. Edward III of England declares war on France since he feels he should also be king of that country. The fighting continues off and on until about 1453. 1347 The Black Death (Around 1347 - 1350 A.D.) A.D. A plague reaches the shores of Italy around 1347, believed to have been carried by merchant ships. Large black boils, oozing with blood and pus, are seen on the victims, who also have fevers, diarrhea, vomiting, and chills. The disease spreads quickly. About 1/3rd of the population dies. 1429 Joan of Arc (1429 - 1431 A.D.) A.D. Joan of Arc wins the Battle of Orleans for France during the Hundred Years War. She continues to fight, encouraging her troops in their war against the English, until she is captured. Falsely accused of being a witch, she is tried and then sentenced to death. She is burned at the stake. 1440 The movable type (1440 - 1456 A.D.) A.D. Johannes Gutenberg of Germany invents a printing press with movable type that can copy a page multiple times. There is no need to copy books by hand anymore. In 1455, the first printed Bible is made. The Middle Ages will be remembered as a time of transitions as old empires fell away, and new nations emerged, leading to a need for fresh ideas and innovations. 1453 - The Ottoman Empire captures the city of Constantinople. This signals the end of the Eastern Roman Empire also known as Byzantium. The Catholic Church in the Middle Ages  After the fall of Rome, no single state or government united the people who lived on the European continent.  Instead, the Catholic Church became the most powerful institution of the medieval period. Spiritual Authority - The Church was seen as the ultimate spiritual authority, with the Pope considered the representative of God on Earth. This gave the Church immense influence over people’s beliefs and daily lives. Economic Power - The Church accumulated vast wealth through tithes, donations, and land ownership. Monasteries and churches often controlled large estates, making the Church one of the largest landowners in Europe. Political Influence - The Church played a crucial role in politics. Kings and nobles often sought the Church’s approval and support. The Pope could  excommunicate rulers, which could undermine their authority and lead to rebellion. Educational and Cultural Influence - The Church was a center of learning and culture. Monasteries preserved and copied ancient texts, and cathedral schools were among the few places where education was available. Social Services - The Church provided essential services such as care for the poor, sick, and elderly. This further solidified its role in society and its influence over the populace. Legal Authority - Canon law, the legal system of the Church, governed many aspects of life, including marriage, morality, and inheritance. This legal framework extended the Church’s control over both public and private matters.  Pope Leo III named the Frankish king Charlemagne the “Emperor of the Romans”– the first since that empire’s fall more than 300 years before.  Over time, Charlemagne’s realm became the Holy Roman Empire, one of several political entities in Europe whose interests tended to align with those of the Church.  Ordinary people across Europe had to “tithe” 10 percent of their earnings each year to the Church; at the same time, the Church was mostly exempt from taxation.  These policies helped it to amass a great deal of money and power. Monastic life in the Early Middle Ages became central to Christian living, serving as centers of education, aid, and preservation of ancient texts. Monasteries played a crucial role in community support and the spread of Christianity across Europe. Monks were responsible for preserving ancient texts, ensuring that vital knowledge survived through the turbulent periods of history. Their efforts helped shape the intellectual landscape of Europe. Women established convents similar to monasteries, contributing to the Christianization of Europe. Notable figures like Hilder of Whitby played key roles in this transformation. Charlemagne's reign marked a significant cultural revival known as the Carolingian Renaissance, blending Germanic, Christian, and Roman traditions. This period greatly influenced the subsequent development of European culture. The Middle Ages: The Rise of Islam  The Islamic world was growing larger and more powerful.  After the prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE, Muslim armies conquered large parts of the Middle East, uniting them under the rule of a single caliph.  Under the caliphs, great cities such as Cairo, Baghdad and Damascus fostered a vibrant intellectual and cultural life. Poets, scientists and philosophers wrote thousands of books (on paper, a Chinese invention that had made its way into the Islamic world by the 8th century).  Scholars translated Greek, Iranian and Indian texts into Arabic. Inventors devised technologies like the pinhole camera, soap, windmills, surgical instruments, an early flying machine and the system of numerals that we use today.  Religious scholars and mystics translated, interpreted and taught the Quran and other scriptural texts to people across the Middle East.  At its height, the medieval Islamic world was more than three times bigger than all of Christendom. The Crusades (1095)  Catholic Church began to authorize military expeditions, or Crusades, to expel Muslim “infidels” from the Holy Land  Crusaders, who wore red crosses on their coats to advertise their status, believed that their service would guarantee the remission of their sins and ensure that they could spend all eternity in Heaven.  They also received more worldly rewards, such as papal protection of their property and forgiveness of some kinds of loan payments.  Pope Urban summoned a Christian army to fight its way to Jerusalem, and continued on and off until the end of the 15th century.  Christian armies captured Jerusalem from Muslim control in 1099, and groups of pilgrims from across Western Europe started visiting the Holy Land.  Kings Templar (1118 )- a French knight named Hugues de Payens created a military order along with eight relatives and acquaintances and they won the eventual support of the pope and a reputation for being fearsome fighters. The order became known for its austere code of conduct (which included no pointy shoes and no kissing their mothers, rules outlined in “The Rule of the Templars”) and signature style of dress, which featured a white habit emblazoned with a simple red cross. Members swore an oath of poverty, chastity and obedience. They weren’t allowed to drink, gamble or swear. Prayer was essential to their daily life, and the Templars expressed particular adoration for the mother of Jesus, the Virgin Mary.  The Fall of Acre in 1291 marked the destruction of the last remaining Crusader refuge in the Holy Land, and Pope Clement V dissolved the Knights Templar in 1312. Hundred Years’ War No one “won” the Crusades; in fact, many thousands of people from both sides lost their lives. They did make ordinary Catholics across Christendom feel like they had a common purpose, and they inspired waves of religious enthusiasm among people who might otherwise have felt alienated from the official Church. They also exposed Crusaders to Islamic literature, science and technology–exposure that would have a lasting effect on European intellectual life. The Middle Ages: Art and Architecture Another way to show devotion to the Church was to build grand Romanesque cathedrals and other ecclesiastical structures such as monasteries. Cathedrals were the largest buildings in medieval Europe, and they could be found at the center of towns and cities across the continent. Around 1200, church builders began to embrace a new architectural style, known as the Gothic. Gothic structures, such as the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis in France and the rebuilt Canterbury Cathedral in England, have huge stained-glass windows, pointed vaults and arches (a technology developed in the Islamic world), and spires and flying buttresses. In contrast to heavy Romanesque buildings, Gothic architecture seems to be almost weightless. Medieval religious art took other forms as well. Frescoes and mosaics decorated church interiors, and artists painted devotional images of the Virgin Mary, Jesus and the saints. Also, before the invention of the printing press in the 15th century, even books were works of art. Craftsmen in monasteries (and later in universities) created illuminated manuscripts: handmade sacred and secular books with colored illustrations, gold and silver lettering and other adornments. Convents were one of the few places women could receive a higher education, and nuns wrote, translated, and illuminated manuscripts as well. In the 12th century, urban booksellers began to market smaller illuminated manuscripts, like books of hours, psalters and other prayer books, to wealthy individuals. Chivalry and courtly love were celebrated in stories and songs spread by troubadours. Some of medieval literature’s most famous stories include “The Song of Roland” and “The Song of Hildebrand.” The Black Death Between 1347 and 1350, a mysterious disease known as the " Black Death " (the bubonic plague) killed some 20 million people in Europe—30 percent of the continent’s population. It was especially deadly in cities, where it was impossible to prevent the transmission of the disease from one person to another. The plague started in Europe in October 1347, when 12 ships from the Black Sea docked at the Sicilian port of Messina. Most sailors aboard the ships were dead, and those who were alive were covered in black boils that oozed blood and pus. Symptoms of the Black Death included fever, chills, vomiting, diarrhea, terrible aches and pains – and then death. Victims could go to bed feeling healthy and be dead by morning. The plague killed cows, pigs, goats, chickens and even sheep, leading to a wool shortage in Europe. Understandably terrified about the mysterious disease, some people of the Middle Ages believed the plague was a divine punishment for sin. To obtain forgiveness, some people became “flagellants,” traveling Europe to put on public displays of penance that could include whipping and beating one another. Others turned on their neighbors, purging people they believed to be heretics. Thousands of Jews were murdered between 1348 and 1349, while others fled to less populated areas of Eastern Europe. Today, scientists know the plague was caused by a bacillus called Yersina pestis, which travels through the air and can also be contracted through the bite of an infected flea. The Middle Ages: Economics and Society In medieval Europe, rural life was governed by a system scholars call “feudalism.” In a feudal society, the king granted large pieces of land called fiefs to noblemen and bishops. Landless peasants known as serfs did most of the work on the fiefs: They planted and harvested crops and gave most of the produce to the landowner. In exchange for their labor, they were allowed to live on the land. They were also promised protection in case of enemy invasion. During the 11th century, however, feudal life began to change. Agricultural innovations such as the heavy plow and three-field crop rotation made farming more efficient and productive, so fewer farm workers were needed–but thanks to the expanded and improved food supply, the population grew. As a result, more and more people were drawn to towns and cities. Meanwhile, the Crusades had expanded trade routes to the East and given Europeans a taste for imported goods such as wine, olive oil and luxurious textiles. As the commercial economy developed, port cities in particular thrived. In these cities, a new era was born: the Renaissance. The Renaissance was a time of great intellectual and economic change, but it was not a complete “rebirth”: It had its roots in the world of the Middle Ages. Economic and Social Inequalities in the Middle Ages A. Impact of Economic Inequalities Feudal System - The feudal system created a rigid social hierarchy, with kings at the top, followed by nobles, knights, and peasants at the bottom. This system established clear roles and responsibilities, often benefiting the landowning class at the expense of serfs and peasants, who worked the land but had limited rights. Labor and Land Ownership: Land was the primary source of wealth and power. Nobles owned vast estates and exploited the labor of peasants, who were bound to the land through serfdom. This arrangement limited social mobility and perpetuated a cycle of poverty among the lower classes. Trade and Towns - As towns began to establish themselves, trade increased, creating a burgeoning merchant class. While this led to some economic opportunity, it also exacerbated inequalities, as wealth became concentrated in the hands of a few wealthy merchants and guilds. Monastic Economy - Monasteries often controlled significant portions of land and wealth, acting as centers of agricultural production and trade. This contributed to social stratification, but also provided some stability and safety for the surrounding communities. B. Effect of Social Inequalities Rigid Class Structure - The clear delineation of classes discouraged social mobility, creating a sense of order but also disenfranchising large segments of the population. This hierarchy reinforced loyalty to local lords and contributed to social cohesion within hierarchical relationships. Role of the Church - The Church played a significant role in justifying social inequalities by promoting the idea of divine right and the naturalness of the social order. This helped maintain the status quo, as the poor were often told that their suffering was a part of God’s plan. Gender Inequalities - Women faced significant social constraints and were often relegated to domestic roles, which limited their participation in economic and political life. However, some women gained power through noble marriages or as abbesses of influential convents. Forces of Change That Brought About the West in the Middle Ages A. Economic Forces Urbanization - The rise of towns and urban centers, particularly in the latter part of the Middle Ages, resulted in increased trade and commerce. This urban growth was pivotal in transitioning from a predominantly agrarian society to a more market-oriented economy, leading to the development of a middle class. Commercial Revolution - Innovations in banking, trade routes, and mercantilism facilitated a shift in the economy, promoting greater mobility and the rise of merchant guilds. The creation of a currency-based economy diminished the reliance on barter and led to more complex economic interactions. Agricultural Advancements - Improvements in agricultural techniques, such as the three- field system and the use of plows, increased productivity and surplus. This led to population growth and sent more people to urban centers in search of work and trade opportunities. B. Social Forces The Rise of the Middle Class - As trade thrived, a new middle class emerged, consisting of merchants, artisans, and skilled laborers. This social group began to gain social and political influence, challenging the established feudal hierarchy. Educational Reforms - The establishment of universities and increased access to education contributed to intellectual growth and the spread of new ideas. Figures like Thomas Aquinas synthesized classical philosophy with medieval Christian thought, leading to a more nuanced understanding of human society. The Black Death - The pandemic had drastic social and economic impacts, leading to labor shortages that shifted power dynamics. With fewer workers available, peasants could negotiate better terms or leave the land, decreasing the dominance of feudal lords. C. Political Forces Centralization of Power - The gradual consolidation of power into more centralized monarchies began to dismantle the feudal system. Strong monarchs like Henry II of England and Louis XI of France established more centralized states, reducing the power of nobles. Legal Reforms - The emergence of common law and the development of legal systems that protected individual rights contributed to diminishing feudal privileges, allowing for greater social mobility and legal equity. Crusades and Cultural Exchange - The Crusades expanded networks of trade and communication with the East, resulting in the transfer of knowledge, technology, and culture, which played a vital role in shaping the future of Western Europe. 6 Reasons the Dark Ages Weren’t So Dark The centuries following the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 A.D. are often referred to as the Dark Ages—but were they really? 1. The idea of the “Dark Ages” came from later scholars who were heavily biased toward ancient Rome. In the years following 476 A.D., various Germanic peoples conquered the former Roman Empire in the West (including Europe and North Africa), shoving aside ancient Roman traditions in favor of their own. The negative view of the so-called “Dark Ages” became popular largely because most of the written records of the time (including St. Jerome and St. Patrick in the fifth century, Gregory of Tours in the sixth and Bede in the eighth) had a strong Rome-centric bias. While it’s true that such innovations as Roman concrete were lost, and the literacy rate was not as high in the Early Middle Ages as in ancient Rome, the idea of the so-called “Dark Ages” came from Renaissance scholars like Petrarch, who viewed ancient Greece and Rome as the pinnacle of human achievement. Accordingly, they dismissed the era that followed as a dark and chaotic time in which no great leaders emerged, no scientific accomplishments were made and no great art was produced. 2. The Church replaced the Roman Empire as the most powerful force in Europe, redefining the relationship between church and state. In Rome’s absence, Europe in the Early Middle Ages lacked a large kingdom or other political structure as a single centralizing force, apart from a brief period during the reign of the Frankish Emperor Charlemagne (more on that later). Instead, the medieval Church grew into the most powerful institution in Europe, thanks in no small part to the rise of monasticism, a movement that began in the third century with St. Anthony of Egypt and would rise to its most influential point in the High Middle Ages (1000-1300 A.D.). Kings, queens and other rulers during the early medieval period drew much of their authority and power from their relationship with the Church. The rise of a strong papacy, beginning with Gregory the Great (pope from 590 to 604), meant that European monarchs could not monopolize power, unlike in the days of the Roman Empire. This idea of limits on royal power would continue into the High Middle Ages, influencing such milestones as the Magna Carta and the birth of the English Parliament. 3. The growth of monasticism had important implications for later Western values and attitudes. The dominance of the Church during the Early Middle Ages was a major reason later scholars—specifically those of the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century and the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries—branded the period as “unenlightened” (otherwise known as dark), believing the clergy repressed intellectual progress in favor of religious piety. But early Christian monasteries encouraged literacy and learning, and many medieval monks were both patrons of the arts and artists themselves. One particularly influential monk of the Early Middle Ages was Benedict of Nursia (480-543), who founded the great monastery of Montecassino. His Benedictine Rule—a kind of written constitution laying out standards for the monastery and congregation and limiting the abbot’s authority according to these standards—spread across Europe, eventually becoming the model for most Western monasteries. Finally, Benedict’s insistence that “Idleness is the enemy of the soul” and his rule that monks should do manual as well as intellectual and spiritual labor anticipated the famous Protestant work ethic by centuries. 4. The Early Middle Ages were boom times for agriculture. Before the Early Middle Ages, Europe’s agricultural prosperity was largely limited to the south, where sandy, dry and loose soil was well suited to the earliest functioning plough, known as the scratch plough. But the invention of the heavy plough, which could turn over the much more fertile clay soil deep in the earth, would galvanize the agriculture of northern Europe by the 10th century. Another key innovation of the period was the horse collar, which was placed around a horse’s neck and shoulders to distribute weight and protect the animal when pulling a wagon or plough. Horses proved to be much more powerful and effective than oxen, and the horse collar would revolutionize both agriculture and transportation. The use of metal horseshoes had become common practice by 1000 A.D. as well. Scientists also believe something called the Medieval Warm Period took place from 900 to 1300, during which the world experienced relatively warm conditions. This held particularly true for the Northern Hemisphere, extending from Greenland eastward through Europe. Combined with key advances in farming technology, uncommonly good weather appears to have fueled the agricultural boom of the period. 5. Great advances were made in science and math—in the Islamic world. Among the more popular myths about the “Dark Ages” is the idea that the medieval Christian church suppressed natural scientists, prohibiting procedures such as autopsies and dissections and basically halting all scientific progress. Historical evidence doesn’t support this idea: Progress may have been slower in Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages, but it was steady, and it laid the foundations for future advances in the later medieval period. At the same time, the Islamic world leaped ahead in mathematics and the sciences, building on a foundation of Greek and other ancient texts translated into Arabic. The Latin translation of “The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing,” by the ninth-century Persian astronomer and mathematician al-Khwarizmi (c. 780-c. 850), would introduce Europe to algebra, including the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations; the Latinized version of al-Khwarizmi’s name gave us the word “algorithm.” 6. The Carolingian Renaissance saw a flowering in the arts, literature, architecture and other cultural realms. Karl, a son of Pepin the Short, inherited the Frankish kingdom with his brother Carloman when Pepin died in 768. Carloman died several years later, and 29-year-old Karl assumed complete control, beginning his historic reign as Charlemagne (or Charles the Great). Over some 50 military campaigns, his forces fought Muslims in Spain, Bavarians and Saxons in northern Germany and Lombards in Italy, expanding the Frankish empire exponentially. As representative of the first Germanic tribe to practice Catholicism, Charlemagne took seriously his duty to spread the faith. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne “emperor of the Romans,” which eventually evolved into the title of Holy Roman Emperor. Reference: https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-middle-east/byzantine-empire https://www.history.com/topics/middle-ages/middle-ages dondellinger.weebly.com/uploads/2/2/9/1/22916536/middle_age_timeline.pdf