Introduction to Linguistic Theory PDF

01:615:201 Introduction to Linguistic Theory Adam Szczegielniak Phonetics: The Sounds of Language Copyright...

01:615:201 Introduction to Linguistic Theory Adam Szczegielniak Phonetics: The Sounds of Language Copyright in part : Cengage learning  Sound Segments Knowing a language includes knowing the sounds of that language Phonetics is the study of speech sounds We are able to segment a continuous stream of speech into distinct parts and recognize the parts in other words Everyone who knows a language knows how to segment sentences into words and words into sounds  Identity of Speech Sounds Our linguistic knowledge allows us to ignore nonlinguistic differences in speech (such as individual pitch levels, rates of speed, coughs) We are capable of making sounds that are not speech sounds in English but are in other languages – The click tsk that signals disapproval in English is a speech sound in languages such as Xhosa and Zulu where it is combined with other sounds just like t or k is in English  Identity of Speech Sounds The science of phonetics aims to describe all the sounds of all the world’s languages – Acoustic phonetics: focuses on the physical properties of the sounds of language – Auditory phonetics: focuses on how listeners perceive the sounds of language – Articulatory phonetics: focuses on how the vocal tract produces the sounds of language  The Phonetic Alphabet Spelling, or orthography, does not consistently represent the sounds of language Some problems with ordinary spelling: – 1. The same sound may be represented by many letters or combination of letters: he people key believe seize machine Caesar seas see amoeba – 2. The same letter may represent a variety of sounds: father village badly made many  The Phonetic Alphabet – 3. A combination of letters may represent a single sound shoot character Thomas either physics rough coat deal – 4. A single letter may represent a combination of sounds xerox  The Phonetic Alphabet – 4. Some letters in a word may not be pronounced at all autumn sword resign pterodactyl lamb corps psychology write knot – 5. There may be no letter to represent a sound that occurs in a word cute use  The Phonetic Alphabet In 1888 the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was invented in order to have a system in which there was a one- to-one correspondence between each sound in language and each phonetic symbol Someone who knows the IPA knows how to pronounce any word in any language  The Phonetic Alphabet Dialectal and individual differences affect pronunciation, but the sounds of English are:  The Phonetic Alphabet Using IPA symbols, we can now represent the pronunciation of words unambiguously:  Articulatory Phonetics Most speech sounds are produced by pushing air through the vocal cords – Glottis = the opening between the vocal cords – Larynx = ‘voice box’ – Pharynx = tubular part of the throat above the larynx – Oral cavity = mouth – Nasal cavity = nose and the passages connecting it to the throat and sinuses  Consonants: Place of Articulation Consonants are sounds produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract Consonants are classified based in part on where in the vocal tract the airflow is being restricted (the place of articulation) The major places of articulation are: bilabial, labiodental, interdental, alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, and glottal Consonants: Place of Articulation © Cengage Learning  Consonants:  Place  of  Ar0cula0on   Bilabials:  [p]  [b]  [m]   – Produced  by  bringing  both  lips  together   Labiodentals:  [f]  [v]   – Produced  by  touching  the  bo=om  lip  to  the  upper  teeth   Interdentals  [θ]  [ð]   – Produced  by  pu@ng  the  0p  of  the  tongue  between  the   teeth    Consonants: Place of Articulation Alveolars: [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r] – All of these are produced by raising the tongue to the alveolar ridge in some way [t, d, n]: produced by the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge (or just in front of it) [s, z]: produced with the sides of the front of the tongue raised but the tip lowered to allow air to escape [l]: the tongue tip is raised while the rest of the tongue remains down so air can escape over the sides of the tongue (thus [l] is a lateral sound) [r]: air escapes through the central part of the mouth; either the tip of the tongue is curled back behind the alveolar ridge or the top of the tongue is bunched up behind the alveolar ridge  Consonants:  Place  of  Ar0cula0on   Palatals:  [ʃ]  [ʒ]  [ʧ]  [ʤ][ʝ]   – Produced  by  raising  the  front  part  of  the  tongue  to  the  palate   Velars:  [k]  [g]  [ŋ]   – Produced  by  raising  the  back  of  the  tongue  to  the  soI  palate  or  velum   Uvulars:  [ʀ]  [q]  [ɢ]     – Produced  by  raising  the  back  of  the  tongue  to  the  uvula   Glo5als:  [h]  [Ɂ]   – Produced  by  restric0ng  the  airflow  through  the  open  glo@s  ([h])  or  by   stopping  the  air  completely  at  the  glo@s  (a  glo5al  stop:  [Ɂ])   Consonants: Manner of Articulation The manner of articulation is the way the airstream is affected as it flows from the lungs and out of the mouth and nose Voiceless sounds are those produced with the vocal cords apart so the air flows freely through the glottis Voiced sounds are those produced when the vocal cords are together and vibrate as air passes through  Consonants:  Manner  of  Ar0cula0on   The  voiced/voiceless  dis0nc0on  is  important  in   English  because  it  helps  us  dis0nguish  words  like:    rope/robe                              fine/vine        seal/zeal    [rop]/[rob]          [faɪn]/[vaɪn]          [sil]/[zil]   But  some  voiceless  sounds  can  be  further   dis0nguished  as  aspirated  or  unaspirated      aspirated      unaspirated      pool  [phul]                spool        [spul]      tale  [thel]                stale        [stel]      kale  [khel]                scale        [skel]   Consonants: Manner of Articulation Oral sounds are those produced with the velum raised to prevent air from escaping out the nose Nasal sounds are those produced with the velum lowered to allow air to escape out the nose So far we have three ways of classifying sounds based on phonetic features: by voicing, by place of articulation, and by nasalization – [p] is a voiceless, bilabial, oral sound – [n] is a voiced, alveolar, nasal sound  Consonants:  Manner  of  Ar0cula0on   Stops:  [p]  [b]  [m]  [t]  [d]  [n]  [k]  [g]  [ŋ]  [ʧ][ʤ]  [Ɂ]   – Produced  by  completely  stopping  the  air  flow  in   the  oral  cavity  for  a  frac0on  of  a  second   All  other  sounds  are  con;nuants,  meaning  that  the   airflow  is  con0nuous  through  the  oral  cavity   Frica;ves:  [f]  [v]  [θ]  [ð]  [s]  [z]  [ʃ]  [ʒ]  [x]  [ɣ]  [h]   – Produced  by  severely  obstruc0ng  the  airflow  so  as   to  cause  fric0on    Consonants:  Manner  of  Ar0cula0on   Affricates:  [ʧ]  [ʤ]   – Produced  by  a  stop  closure  that  is  released  with  a  lot  of   fric0on   Liquids:  [l]  [r]   – Produced  by  causing  some  obstruc0on  of  the  airstream  in   the  mouth,  but  not  enough  to  cause  any  real  fric0on   Glides:  [j]  [w]     – Produced  with  very  li=le  obstruc0on  of  the  airstream  and   are  always  followed  by  a  vowel    Consonants:  Manner  of  Ar0cula0on   Approximants:  [w]  [j]  [r]  [l]   – Some0mes  liquids  and  glides  are  put  together  into  one  category  because  the   ar0culators  approximate  a  fric0onal  closeness  but  do  not  actually  cause   fric0on   Trills  and  flaps:  [r]*  [ɾ]   – Trills  are  produced  by  rapidly  vibra0ng  an  ar0culator   – Flaps  are  produced  by  a  flick  of  the  tongue  against  the  alveolar  ridge   Clicks:   – Produced  by  moving  air  in  the  mouth  between  various  ar0culators   – The  disapproving  sound  tsk  in  English  is  a  consonant  in  Zulu  and  some  other   southern  African  languages   – The  lateral  click  used  to  encourage  a  horse  in  English  is  a  consonant  in  Xhosa   *The textbook uses [r] to represent the central liquid as in the word ready rather than as a trill  Vowels   Vowels  are  classified  by  how  high  or  low  the  tongue  is,  if  the   tongue  is  in  the  front  or  back  of  the  mouth,  and  whether  or   not  the  lips  are  rounded   High  vowels:  [i] [ɪ] [u] [ʊ]   Mid  vowels:  [e]  [ɛ]  [o]  [ə]  [ʌ]  [ɔ]   Low  vowels:  [æ]  [a]     Front  vowels:  [i]  [ɪ]  [e]  [ɛ]  [æ]   Central  vowels:  [ə]  [ʌ]     Back  vowels:  [u]  [ɔ]  [o]  [æ]  [a]    Vowels © Cengage Learning  Vowels   Round  vowels:  [u]  [ʊ]  [o]  [ɔ]   – Produced  by  rounding  the  lips   – English  has  only  back  round  vowels,  but  other  languages  such  as  French  and   Swedish  have  front  round  vowels   Diphthongs:  [aɪ]  [aʊ]  [ɔɪ]   – A  sequence  of  two  vowel  sounds  (as  opposed  to  the  monophthongs  we  have   looked  at  so  far)   Nasaliza;on:     – Vowels  can  also  be  pronounced  with  a  lowered  velum,  allowing  air  to  pass   through  the  nose   – In  English,  speakers  nasalize  vowels  before  a  nasal  sound,  such  as  in  the  words   beam,  bean,  and  bingo   – The  nasaliza0on  is  represented  by  a  diacri0c,  an  extra  mark  placed  with  the   symbol:    Vowels Tense vowels: – Are produced with greater tension in the tongue – May occur at the end of words Lax vowels: – Are produced with less tongue tension – May not occur at the end of words Vowels  Major Phonetic Classes Noncontinuants: the airstream is totally obstructed in the oral cavity – Stops and affricates Continuants: the airstream flows continuously out of the mouth – All other consonants and vowels Obstruents: the airstream has partial or full obstruction – Non-nasal stops, fricatives, and affricates Sonorants: air resonates in the nasal or oral cavities – Vowels, nasal stops, liquids, and glides  Major  Phone0c  Classes:  Consonantal   Consonantal:  there  is  some  restric0on  of  the  airflow   during  ar0cula0on   – All  consonants  except  glides   Consonantal  sounds  can  be  further  subdivided:   – Labials:  [p]  [b]  [m]  [f]  [v]  [w]  [ʍ]   Ar0culated  with  the  lips   – Coronals:  [θ]  [ð]  [t]  [d]  [n]  [s]  [z]  [ʃ]  [ʒ]  [ʧ][ʤ]  [l]  [r]   Ar0culated  by  raising  the  tongue  blade    Major  Phone0c  Classes   Consonantal  categories  cont.:   – Anteriors:  [p]  [b]  [m]  [f]  [v]  [θ]  [ð]  [t]  [d]  [n]  [s]  [z]   Produced  in  the  front  part  of  the  mouth  (from  the  alveolar  area   forward)     – Sibilants:  [s]  [z]  ]  [ʃ]  [ʒ]  [ʧ][ʤ]   Produced  with  a  lot  of  fric0on  that  causes  a  hissing  sound,  which  is   a  mixture  of  high-­‐frequency  sounds     Syllabic  Sounds:  sounds  that  can  func0on  as  the  core   of  a  syllable   – Vowels,  liquids,  and  nasals    Prosodic  Features   Prosodic,  or  suprasegmental  features  of  sounds,   such  as  length,  stress  and  pitch,  are  features  above   the  segmental  values  such  as  place  and  manner  of   ar0cula0on   Length:  in  some  languages,  such  as  Japanese,  the   length  of  a  consonant  or  a  vowel  can  change  the   meaning  of  a  word:   – biru  [biru]  “building”    biiru  [biːru]  “beer”   – saki  [saki]  “ahead”    sakki  [sakːi]  “before”    Prosodic Features Stress: stressed syllables are louder, slightly higher in pitch, and somewhat longer than unstressed syllables – The noun digest has the stress on the first syllable – The verb digest has the stress on the second syllable – English is a stress-timed language, meaning that at least one syllable is stressed in an English word French functions differently, so when English speakers learn French they put stress on certain syllables which contributes to their foreign accent  Tone  and  Intona0on   Tone  languages  are  languages  that  use  pitch   to  contrast  the  meaning  of  words   For  example,  in  Thai,  the  string  of  sounds  [naː]  can   be  said  with  5  different  pitches  and  can  thus  have   5  different  meanings:    Tone and Intonation Intonation languages (like English) have varied pitch contour across an utterance, but pitch is not used to distinguish words – However, intonation may affect the meaning of a whole sentence: John is here said with falling intonation is a statement John is here said with rising intonation is a question Phonetics of Signed Languages Signs can be broken down into segmental features similar to the phonetic features of speech sounds (such as place and manner of articulation) – And just like spoken languages, signed languages of the world vary in these features – Signs are formed by three major features: 1. The configuration of the hand (handshape) 2. The movement of the hand and arm towards or away from the body 3. The location of the hand in signing space Phonetics of Signed Languages The configuration of the hand (handshape) The movement of the hand and arm The location of the hand in signing space