Overview of Introduction to Linguistics PDF

1. Overview of Introduction to Linguistics 1. Linguistics as the Science of Language 2. Definitions of Language according to Famous Linguists/Theorists 3. Macro Skills of Language 4. Views and Overview of Theories in Language Study Behaviorist Innatist/Nativist Cognitivist Interactionist 5....

1. Overview of Introduction to Linguistics 1. Linguistics as the Science of Language 2. Definitions of Language according to Famous Linguists/Theorists 3. Macro Skills of Language 4. Views and Overview of Theories in Language Study Behaviorist Innatist/Nativist Cognitivist Interactionist 5. Communicative Competence by D. Hymes Linguistic Sociolinguistic Discourse Strategic 6. Components of Grammar – An Introduction Phonetics and Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics 7. World Englishes – An Introduction World vs. Philippine vs. Standard Englishes NESTs vs.Non-NESTS 8. Kachru’s Concentric Circles Overview of Introduction to Linguistics 1. Linguistics as the Science of Language Linguistics is one of those subjects that not many people have heard of, so you may be wondering what it is. The simplest definition of Linguistics is that it’s the science of language. This is a simple definition, but it contains some very important words. First, when we say that linguistics is a science, that doesn’t mean you need a lab coat and safety goggles to do linguistics. Instead, it means that the way we ask questions to learn about language uses a scientific approach. The scientific way of thinking about language involves making systematic, empirical observations. Another important word: empirical means observing data to find the evidence for our theories. All scientists make empirical observations: botanists observe how plants grow and reproduce. Chemists observe how substances interact with each other. Linguists observe how people use their language. A crucial thing to keep in mind is that the observations we make about language use are NOT value judgments. Lots of people in the world — like your high school English teacher, various newspaper columnists, maybe your grandparents, and maybe even some of your friends — make judgments about how people use language. But linguists don’t. A short-hand way of saying this is that linguists have a descriptive approach to language, not a prescriptive approach. We describe what people do with their language but don’t prescribe how they should or shouldn’t do it. This descriptive approach is consistent with a scientific way of thinking. Think about an entomologist who studies beetles. Imagine that a scientist observes that a species of beetle eats leaves. She’s not going to judge that the beetles are eating wrong and tell them that they’d be more successful in life if only they ate the same thing as ants. No — she observes what the beetle eats and tries to figure out why: she develops a theory of why the beetle eats this plant and not that one. In the same way, linguists observe what people say and how they say it, and develop theories of why people say certain things or make certain sounds but not others. In our simple definition of linguistics, there’s another important word we need to focus on: linguistics is the science of human language. Plenty of species communicate with each other in an impressive variety of ways, but in linguistics, our job is to focus on the unique system that humans use. Humans have some important differences from all other species that make our language unique. First, what we call the articulatory system: our lungs, larynx & vocal folds, and the shape of our tongue, teeth, lips, and nose, all enable us to produce speech. No other species can do this as we can, not even our closest genetic relatives, the chimpanzees, bonobos, and orangutans. Second, our auditory system is special: our ears are sensitive to the frequencies most common in human speech. Other species have similar patterns of auditory sensitivity, but human newborns pay special attention to human speech, even more so than synthetic speech matched for acoustic characteristics. And most important of all, our neural system is special: no other species has a brain as complex and densely connected as ours with so many connections dedicated to producing and understanding language. Humans’ language ability is different from all other species’ communication systems, and linguistics is the science that studies this unique ability. 2. Definitions of Language according to Famous Theorists/ Linguists Aristotle Speech is the representation of the experience of the mind. According to Aristotle, language is a speech sound produced by human beings to express their ideas, emotions, thoughts, desires, and feelings. Saussure Language is an arbitrary system of signs constituted of the signifier and signified. In other words, language is first a system based on no logic or reason, and secondly, the system covers both objects and expressions used for objects. Thirdly, objects and expressions are arbitrarily linked. And finally, expressions include sounds and graphemes used by humans for generating speech and writing, respectively, for communication. Sapir According to Sapir, language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires through voluntarily produced sounds. The definition of Sapir expresses that language is mainly concerned with only human beings and constitutes a system of sounds produced by them for communication. Bloomfield The totality of the utterances that can be made in a speech community is the language of that speech community. Bloomfield’s definition of language focuses on the utterances produced by all the community’s people and overlooks writing. Besides, he stresses form, not meaning, as the basis of language. Bloch and Trager According to Bloch and Trager, a language is a system of arbitrary vocal sounds through a social group that cooperates. Their definition of language points out that language is an arbitrary system, vocal sounds, a way of communication, and collectivity. Noam Chomsky Noam Chomsky says that language is the inherent capability of native speakers to understand and form grammatical sentences. A language is a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite length constructed out of a limited set of elements. This definition of language considers sentences as the basis of a language. Sentences may be limited or unlimited and are made up of only minor components. Derbyshire Derbyshire says that language is undoubtedly a kind of communication among human beings. It consists primarily of vocal sounds, articulatory, systematic, symbolic, and arbitrary. This definition of Derbyshire clearly utters that language is the best source of communication, and it also portrays how human language is formed and the fundamental principles of language. Lyons According to Lyons, languages are the principal communication systems used by particular groups of human beings within their specific society. Lyons especially points out that language is the best communicative system for human beings by particular social groups. Wardhaugh A language is a system of arbitrary vocal sounds used for human communication. This definition of language by Wardhaugh mainly insists on arbitrariness, vocal sounds, humans, and communication. Patanjali Indian linguist Patanjali utters that language is a human expression produced by different speech organs of human beings. Through speech organs, humans produce several expressions converted to language. 3. Macro Skills of Language Language has always been a part of everyone’s daily life, but one can wonder how people learn a language. A set of skills are required to learn a language. These skills are called Macro skills. Macro skills are the primary building blocks for language learning and effective communication. There are Four Macro skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Listening Listening is the ability to understand what we hear and is the basis for speaking, reading, and writing. The main goal of this skill is to receive and understand the information given by the speaker. It helps provide a better response, creating an efficient discourse. There are three basic listening models; the first is called Active listening. Active listening is where listeners engage and follow the speaker's words. In addition, active listeners are not easily distracted. They let the speaker finish before giving feedback, creating a discourse that involves non-verbal cues and verbal affirmations. The second one is Passive listening. In this model, the listeners are attentive to the speaker, yet the two-way communication is eliminated. The third model is known as Competitive listening. In this model, the listener's goal is to find flaws, question the speaker, and push their opinions, practically disregarding the speaker’s stance. Competitive listeners are inattentive, considering that they are formulating responses and ideas of their own. Speaking Speaking is directly communicating with each other through a certain language, aiming to give information. To express one’s ideas and/or thoughts most conveniently and to improve oral communication. To have effective speaking skills, one must learn the following skills: Fluency and speaking confidently while presenting ideas. Vocabulary is the capacity to understand and familiarize with the meaning of each word in a sentence. While grammar is the proper use of tenses. The last is pronunciation, the act of enunciating a word's stress, intonation, and syllables. Speaking also includes non-verbal cues such as facial expression, body language, and hand gestures. Reading Reading is the ability to understand written materials. We use this skill to scan written information and understand what message the writers want us to know. Reading also helps us evaluate different written materials and analyze information from multiple sources. According to the National Reading Panel, there are five components of reading. First is phoneme awareness, the ability to understand and work with the individual sounds in words. Meanwhile, phonics is the relationship between the sounds and written symbols of language. Next is fluency, which is the ability to accurately read text quickly. Vocabulary is the ability to understand the meanings of each word. The last component is comprehension, the ability to understand what is read. Writing Writing is the act of expressing one’s ideas in print with the use of characters and symbols. Its purpose is to give written information and enhance written communication skills. To have effective writing skills, one must know the proper use of punctuation and grammar, know spelling, identify leading and supporting ideas, understand how word order changes the meaning of sentences, and lastly, know the correct use of capitalization. Relationship of the four Macro skills: These four skills can work simultaneously and are reciprocal with each other. Reading and writing skills depend on oral language skills; in the long run, they become vice versa. These macro skills can be combined into four more skills. The first one is oral skills, which is the combination of speaking and listening that aims to enhance oral communication. The second one is literacy skills, which are reading and writing combined. It enhances effective written communication. The third is a receptive skill, which combines listening and reading. The purpose of this skill is to receive information. The last is the combination of speaking and writing, called productive skills, which aims to create or produce messages. 4. Views and Overview of Theories in Language Study Behaviorist Innatist/Nativist Cognitivist Interactionist Behaviorist Theory Proponent: B.F. Skinner The external observable aspects of language The child’s brain is a blank slate (tabula rasa) and must learn language from scratch. Children acquire language through imitating models. The child is conditioned to produce language by receiving reinforcement (reward or punishment) for his/her utterances. Models will not reinforce language that has errors until it is corrected. Children learn language based on behaviorist reinforcement principles by associating words with meanings. Correct utterances are positively reinforced when the child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases. Innatist/Nativist Theory Proponent: Noam Chomsky The most well-known theory about language acquisition. View language acquisition as fundamentally different from other types of learning Children are naturally wired and equipped with a device to learn the language – Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Proposed the theory of Universal Grammar Universal Grammar – a basic blueprint that all languages follow part of the biologically endowed human language faculty; an idea of innate, biological grammatical categories, such as a noun category and a verb category, that facilitate the entire language development in children and overall language processing in adults. In his book, Chomsky (2002) provided an analysis of syntax that supports his innatist theory. He claimed that infants had innate universal grammar. Universal grammar was the template possessed by the children since they were born. As they grew, they would face language functions. When they were exposed to the  language, grammar was gradually constructed. Children tried to make hypothesis instead of imitating the language. The rule of plural nouns, for example, would make the students learn that -s ending was necessary for plural nouns. However, as they experienced the language, they would revise their hypothesis by not using -s ending to all nouns in creating plural nouns. It was when they used the rule from their hypothesis instead of just repeating others. Cognitivist Theory Proponent: Jean Piaget Language is organized into mental representations. Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on learning processes rather than the observed behavior. Unlike behaviorists, cognitivists do not require an outward exhibition of learning but focus more on the internal processes and connections during learning. Cognitivists contend that “the black box” of the mind should be opened and understood. The role of the learner – viewed as an information processor; they are active participants in the learning process. They use various strategies to process and construct their understanding of the content they are exposed to. Students are no longer considered recipients that teachers fill with knowledge but active participants in the learning. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions, and learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata. An individual‘s cognition plays a significant and primary role in developing and maintaining emotional and behavioral responses to life situations (Prendes & Resko). In other words, cognitivist theory, as the study of mental processes, could impact or influence the individual’s emotions and behavioral responses because it determines how a person thinks, understands, and knows. Principles of Cognitivism –sensation, perception, attention, encoding, and memory Social Interactionist Theory/Socio-cultural Theory Proponent: Lev Vygotsky Social Interactionist Theory (SIT) explains language development, emphasizing the role of social interaction between the developing child and linguistically knowledgeable adults. It is based largely on the socio-cultural theories of Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Children learn turn-taking and pragmatic functions of language through interacting with others. Nature and Nurture is involved in the language acquisition. The interactionist approach (sociocultural theory) combines ideas from sociology and biology to explain how language is developed. According to this theory, children learn language to communicate with the world around them. Language emerges from, and is dependent upon, social interaction. The Interactionist approach claims that if our language ability develops out of a desire to communicate, language depends on whom we want to communicate with. This means the environment you grow up in will heavily affect how well and quickly you learn to talk. For example, infants raised by only their mother are more likely to learn the word “mama”, and less likely to develop “dada”. Among the first words we learn are ways to demand attention or food. You may recognize this theory's  influence if you’ve ever tried to learn a new language. Language classes often teach commonly used vocabulary and phrases first, focusing on building conversations rather than simple rote memorization. Even when we expand our vocabulary in our native language, we remember the words we use the most. 5. Communicative Competence by D. Hymes Linguistic Sociolinguistic Discourse Strategic Dell Hymes1927 -2009, USA As one of the first sociolinguists, Dell Hymes helped to establish the connection between speech and human relations and human understandings of the world. Hymes proposed the notion of communicative competence, or knowledge necessary to use language in a social context (appropriate language use) Communicative Competence - “…a normal child acquires knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical but also as appropriate. He or she acquires competence as to when to speak, when not, and what to talk about with whom, when, where, and in what manner. - A child becomes able to accomplish a repertoire of speech acts, to take part in speech events, and to evaluate their accomplishment by others” (Hymes1972, 277) - Linguists have found communicative competence as a superior model of language following Dell Hymes' opposition to Chomsky's linguistic competence (grammar knowledge) Main points - The original idea was that speakers of a language need more than grammatical competence (knowledge of the rules) to communicate effectively in a language; they also need to know how members of a speech community use language to accomplish their purposes. - He intended to establish the connection between speech and human relations and human understandings of the world. - He created the Dell Hymes Model of Speaking and the term communicative competence within language education. - It is described within the discipline of Sociolinguistics Components of Communicative Competence Linguistic Competence - Knowledge of: grammar and vocabulary, sounds and their pronunciation (phonetics), the rules that govern sound interactions and patterns (phonology), the formation of words using e.g. inflection and derivation (morphology), the grammar rules (syntax), and the way that meaning is conveyed through language (semantics). Sociolinguistic Competence - Knowledge of sociocultural rules of use, how to use and respond to language appropriately. - The appropriateness depends on the setting of the communication, the topic, the relationships among the people, taboos of the other culture, politeness (authority, friendliness, courtesy, irony, etc.) are expressed, etc. Discourse competence - Is the knowledge of producing and comprehending oral or written texts in the modes of speaking/writing and listening/reading, respectively. It’s knowing how to combine language structures into a cohesive and coherent oral or written text of different types. - It deals with organizing words, phrases, and sentences to create conversations, speeches, poetry, email messages, newspaper articles, etc. Strategic Competence - Is the ability to recognize and repair communication breakdowns before, during, or after they occur. If the communication was unsuccessful due to external factors (such as interruptions) or the message being misunderstood, the speaker must know how to restore communication. - Ex: requests for repetition, clarification, negotiation of meaning, using gestures, taking turns in conversation, etc. 6. Components of Grammar – An Introduction Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Phonology The study of speech structure within a language, including both the patterns of basic speech units and the accepted pronunciation rules, is known as phonology. The smallest units of sound that make up a language are called phonemes. For example, the word “that” contains three phonemes: the “th” represents one phoneme /th/, the “a” maps to the short a sound /ă/, and the “t” to its basic sound /t/. Morphology Moving to the next level of language, we find the study of the smallest units of meaning, morphemes. Morphemes include base words, such as “hat,” “dog,” or “love,” as well as affixes, such as “un-,” “re-,” the plural “s” or “es,” and the past tense “ed.” Knowledge of the morphology of our language is critical to vocabulary development and reflects the smallest building blocks for comprehension. Syntax The study of how individual words and their most basic meaningful units are combined to create sentences is known as syntax. As words are grouped when we communicate, we must follow the grammar rules for our language, in other words, its syntax. The knowledge of syntax allows us to recognize that the following two sentences while containing different word order and levels of complexity, have the same meaning. The boy hit the ball. The ball was hit by the boy. Syntax also allows us to accept “I went to the store” as a meaningful (grammatical) sentence, while “To store went I” would not be acceptable English. Semantics Not only does the grammatical structure of our language provide the needed clues for understanding, but we also have a wealth of figurative language and rich description that adds color and nuance to our communication. Semantics refers to how a language conveys meaning. It is our understanding of semantics that allows us to recognize that someone who is “green with envy” has not changed hue or that “having cold feet” has less to do with the appendage at the end of our legs and more to do with our anxiety about a new experience. Because semantics moves beyond the literal meaning of words and is culture-dependent, this is among the most difficult aspects of language for individuals who are not native speakers and even those who speak the same language but come from different cultures and convey meaning using words in unique ways. Anyone who has attempted to converse with a teenager in his vernacular can appreciate the importance of sharing a semantic base for communicating clearly. Pragmatics Pragmatics refers to the ways the members of the speech community achieve their goals using language. How we speak to our parents differs from how we interact with a sibling, for example. The language used in a formal speech may bear little resemblance to what we would hear at a lunch with five friends. The conversational style of day-to-day interactions is quite different from the language used, even when reading a storybook to a toddler. Knowing the difference and when to use which style is the essence of pragmatics. 7. World Englishes – An Introduction World English vs. World Englishes World English is the language used in business, trade diplomacy, and other international activities, while World Englishes refers to the varieties of English from the different regions of the world. It refers to the emerging Englishes, which are products of influence from the United Kingdom or the United States. World vs. Philippine vs. Standard Englishes Feature World Philippine Standard English English English Definition Varieties of English spoken in the Normative form used English globally Philippines formally Pronunciation Diverse accents Influenced by local Neutral, widely languages understood Vocabulary Region-specific Local terms like “CR” Universal terms like terms “restroom” Grammar Varied This may include local Prescribed rules deviations Usage Informal and Common in everyday Formal formal contexts and formal use in the communication and Philippines official documents NESTs vs.Non-NESTs Criteria Native English-Speaking Non-Native English- Teachers (NESTs) Speaking Teachers (NNESTs) Definition Teachers who speak English Teachers who speak English as their first language and are as a second language and from English-speaking learn it formally. countries. Language Intuition Native speakers often use Non-native speakers learned English intuitively and English systematically and naturally. consciously. Understanding of May struggle to explain Often better at explaining Language grammar rules and language grammar and language Structure structure due to lack of formal structures due to formal training. education. Cultural Context Provides authentic cultural May lack some cultural context and uses modern slang references and use more and colloquialisms. formal or textbook language. Teaching Flexibility Can offer insights into May offer a more structured contemporary language use approach and focus on and diverse expressions. detailed explanations.  Empathy and May not fully relate to the Often more empathetic and Motivation challenges of learning English motivational, understanding as a second language. the challenges faced by learners. Experience with Typically, up-to-date with May be less familiar with Modern Language current language trends and recent slang or informal informal speech. language. Accent and Often has native accents and May have an accent, which Pronunciation pronunciation. can be useful for learning diverse English accents. Confidence in High confidence due to natural May struggle with insecurity Language Use language use. about their language skills compared to natives. NESTs are ideal for learners aiming for native-like pronunciation and cultural context. NNESTs benefit learners who need detailed explanations of grammar and structure and may find motivation to see a non-native achieve proficiency. 8. Kachru’s Concentric Circles Kachru (1985) proposes this concentric circle to illustrate the spread of English all over the world Each circle in this model represents the kind of function and acquisition in which the English language is used. 1. Inner Circle (ENL) The Inner Circle Englishes in the model refer to the parent countries of English. These countries are the colonizing nations in our history. Through colonization, they have spread English to the other regions of the world. For example, Britain carried the language to Australia, New Zealand, and North America. 2. Outer Circle (ESL) The Outer Circle belongs to the territories colonized by the parent countries of English. English in this circle, is considered to be a second nonnative language and is used for functions like education, law, and government transactions. 3. Expanding Circle (EFL) The Expanding Circle considers English as a foreign language. This encompasses countries where English has no historical or governmental roles. Nevertheless, English is still used for very limited transactions and mostly for international communications.