PSY107 Introduction to Psychology 1 PDF

Seminar 2: PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Welcome Back! PSY107 Introduction to Psychology 1 Prepared by: Dr Inderbir Sandhu Today’s Session: What You Need To Know Four research steps of a scientific research Develop a hypothesis...

Seminar 2: PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Welcome Back! PSY107 Introduction to Psychology 1 Prepared by: Dr Inderbir Sandhu Today’s Session: What You Need To Know Four research steps of a scientific research Develop a hypothesis Gather data/results objectively OR subjectively Analyse data/results Publish, criticise and replicate study Five research methods Naturalistic observations Case studies Surveys Experiments & Quasi Experiments Correlational studies Qualitative & quantitative research Ethical concerns in research ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 2 Research … A systematic and organised process of inquiry that aims to discover new knowledge, expand understanding, and contribute to the existing body of information on a particular subject or topic. Involves gathering, analysing, and interpreting data to answer questions or address problems. ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 3 Key Characteristics of Research: An Overview Systematic Approach - Research follows a structured and organized methodology to ensure that the process is rigorous and reliable. It involves careful planning, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Objective Exploration - Research seeks to objectively explore and investigate phenomena, facts, or concepts. It aims to uncover truths and insights without being influenced by personal biases or opinions. Creation of Knowledge - Through research, new knowledge is generated, or existing knowledge is expanded upon. It contributes to the advancement of understanding in various fields, leading to innovation and progress. Problem Solving - Research often addresses specific questions or problems. It aims to find solutions, offer explanations, or provide insights into various issues. Data Collection and Analysis - Involves the collection of data through methods such as surveys, experiments, observations, or interviews, which is analysed using appropriate techniques to draw meaningful conclusions. Peer Review - Research is typically subject to peer review, where experts in the field evaluate the methodology, findings, and conclusions. This ensures the quality and validity of the research. Publication - Research findings are often published in academic journals, books, conference proceedings, etc. This dissemination of knowledge allows others in the field to learn from and build upon the research. Ethical Considerations - Researchers adhere to ethical guidelines to ensure the well-being of participants, maintain integrity, and avoid any harm or exploitation. ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 4 The Importance of Research: Scientific Knowledge Scientific knowledge is empirical: it is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing. Helps us in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain. Question: Observable behaviour - Crying Why is the person crying? ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 5 The Scientific Method Systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena to answer questions about What happens, When it happens, What causes it, and Why? Research Question What do we want to test? Specify the hypothesis. Operational Definition Definition of “X”… How are we going to test the hypothesis? Identify best type of research method to use. ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 6  The Five Steps of the Scientific Method Define & describe Form a testable hypothesis Choose a research strategy Conduct study/Data collection Analyse data (support/reject hypothesis) ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 7 1. Define/Describe Identify the problem or question Clearly define the key terms and concepts Example: “How does social media usage affect mental health in teenagers?” ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 8  Make an educated guess that can be tested Specific, measurable, and falsifiable Example: “Teenagers who spend more than 2 2. Form a hours daily on social media will experience Testable increased symptoms of anxiety.” Hypothesis ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 9  Both hypothesis and research question are crucial in the scientific method, but they serve different purposes: Research Question: A specific, focused question that guides the investigation Usually broad and open-ended Example: “How does social media usage impact mental health in young adults?” Hypothesis Hypothesis: A testable, predictive statement that proposes an explanation & Research Specific, concise, and falsifiable Question Example: "If young adults spend more than 3 hours daily on social media, they will experience a significant increase in symptoms of depression." In essence: Research question: What's happening? Hypothesis: Why and how is it happening? A research question sets the stage, while a hypothesis provides a specific, testable explanation to investigate. You need both! ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 10 Hypothesis is a statement that predicts a particular variable (IV) having an effect on another variable (DV). Hypothesis: Children who consume sugar would be more hyperactive compared to children who do not. Identify the IV and DV IV: ? DV: ? IV – presumed cause DV – presumed effect ©2023 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 11  Psychologists Ask Questions: Hypotheses Two categories of hypotheses: predictive hypotheses and causal hypotheses. Predictive hypothesis: an educated guess about the relationships or associations among variables. E.g., A higher level of physical activity is associated with lower levels of stress among college students. Causal hypothesis: an educated guess about how one variable affects another variable. E.g., Increasing the amount of sunlight exposure leads to improved mood and reduced symptoms of seasonal affective disorder. ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 12  HYPOTHESIS VS RESEARCH QUESTION (extra) Parameters of Research Question Hypothesis Comparison Research Questions is the question that Hypothesis is the statement that tends to Definition the research tends to answer. predict the outcome of the research. Nature It has an inquisitive nature. It is an assumption. It is written as a question. For example, It is written in the form of a statement. For Structure “What will be the effect on the water example, “Water turns into ice when when cooled up to its freezing point?” cooled up to its freezing point.” A research question is generally posed in Hypothesis is usually written in the Fields the theory papers of subjects like research papers related to the fields of sociology, literature, etc. science, mathematics, etc. Since it is a question, it provides for the Being a predictive statement, the number Outcomes possibility of a great number of of outcomes is reduced to a minimum. outcomes. ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 13 Independent Variable Dependent Variable & Random Assignment Independent Variable (IV) Presumed cause (variable that is changed/manipulated) Actively controls it while holding all other factors constant (e.g.: sugar level, smoking, sleep) Dependent Variable (DV) Presumed effect (variable affected by the change/measured) The measured outcome of a study; e.g., the responses of participants in a study (e.g., hyperactivity) Random Assignment Assign participants to each group by chance alone Avoid any pre-existing differences between the 2 groups (e.g.: gender) ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 14 Relationship between Independent & Dependent Variable Expectation: The dependent variable will change as a function of the independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable. Think about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables with this question: What effect does the independent variable have on the dependent variable? ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 15  16 ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved  Decide how to test your hypothesis Experiment, survey, 3. Choose observation, Research correlation, etc Example: “Conduct a Strategy survey of 100 teenagers, measuring social media usage and anxiety levels.” ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 17 4. Data Collection Gather evidence through measurements or observations Accurate, reliable, and relevant data Example: “Collect data on social media usage (hours/day) and anxiety symptoms (standardised questionnaire).” ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 18 5. Analysing the Data Examine and interpret the data Compare results to your hypothesis Example: “Correlate social media usage with anxiety symptoms. Do the results support or reject the hypothesis?” Based on statistical analyses of results, the hypothesis is accepted or rejected. E.g., Statistics: Means, ANOVA, t-test (SPSS package). Example of findings Results show a significant positive correlation between social media usage and anxiety symptoms in teenagers, supporting the hypothesis. ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 19 2. Gathering/Collecting Data  Recap: The Scientific Method ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 21 ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 22 Bias in Psychological Research ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 23  Confirmation bias: This occurs when researchers favour information that confirms their existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence. Bias refers to Participant bias: Participants may provide inaccurate information due to social desirability (answering in a way they think is socially acceptable) or demand characteristics (behaving as they think the systematic researcher expects). errors in Researcher bias: Researchers’ expectations can influence their observations or interpretations, leading to skewed results. This research that includes observer bias (seeing what they expect to see) and experimenter bias (treating participants differently based on expectations). can distort findings Sampling bias: When the sample does not accurately represent the population, it can lead to misleading results.  Naturalistic Observations Case Studies Six Types of Surveys Psychological Experiment Research Quasi-experiment Correlational ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 25 Naturalistic Observation Observe behaviour in the environment in which behaviour usually occurs (natural environment - no manipulation of environment) Unobtrusive measure - careful observation of behaviour without intervening directly with the subjects. ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 26 Naturalistic observation Advantages Disadvantages ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 27 Case Studies Detailed investigations of an individual or small group of people, usually regarding an unusual/rare phenomenon of interest to a research field. Due to a small sample, the case study can conduct an in-depth analysis of the individual/group. Often include face-to-face interviews, paper and pencil tests, etc. ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 28 ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 29 Case studies Advantages Disadvantages ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 30 Surveys Uses prepared set of questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of behaviour Can be delivered as paper-and- pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally Popular and effective Determines attitudes, preferences, and more ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 31 Surveys Advantages Disadvantages ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 32  Common Types of Survey Bias, and How to Correct for Them (extra) Type of Bias Example of Bias Correcting for the Bias Social Desirability Bias Asking drivers if they have ever broken a Ask how often they break traffic laws, and give traffic law. options of “Rarely,” “Sometimes,” and “Frequently.” Avoid Leading Questions Do you agree that it is important to save the On a scale of 1 to 10, how concerned are you about environment? the environment? Double-Barrelled Questions How happy are you with your phone How satisfied or dissatisfied are you with your company’s rates and customer service? phone company’s rates? How satisfied or dissatisfied are you with your phone company’s customer service? Representative Sampling Asking people at a gym how important their Collect data in several locations, none of which are health is to them. related to health. Survey Conditions Asking a couple to fill out a questionnaire Give each partner in the couple a separate about their relationship satisfaction. questionnaire and ensure that they complete it in separate rooms without conversing with each other. ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 33  Experiments The researcher controls and manipulates the conditions. Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated Variable (Cause) Dependent Variable (DV): Variable that measures the effect of manipulating the IV (Effect) Confounding Variables: Factors other than the IV that could influence the DV Selecting participants for experiments Must meet selection criteria Sample group should be representative of the population (age, gender, etc.) Selection based on randomisation Big numbers necessary for statistical power and for a representative sample ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 34  Experiments Advantages Disadvantages ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 36 Quasi-experiment A quasi-experiment is a type of research design that is similar to a true experiment, but it does not have random assignment of participants to groups. This means that the researcher cannot be sure that any differences between the groups are due to the independent variable, as there may be other confounding variables that could explain the differences. Often used when it is not possible or ethical to randomly assign participants to groups, such as in educational or medical settings. E.g., a researcher may compare the academic performance of students who are using a new teaching method to the performance of students who are using the traditional teaching method. In this case, the researcher cannot randomly assign students to the different groups, as this would disrupt the educational process. However, the researcher can still compare the performance of the two groups and look for any differences. ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 37  Quasi-experiments Advantages Disadvantages ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 38 Correlational Studies Studies relationship between two or more variables. e.g., playing violent computer games and violent behaviour. Used to make predictions & test predictive hypotheses. Cannot control variables: Measures them to see if a relationship exists. Correlation Coefficient: Number indicates strength of relationship Between -1.00 to +1.00 0 = no relationship stronger relationship (away from 0), weaker relationship (closer to 0) Positive sign: As one variable increases the other increases. Negative sign: As one variable increases the other decreases (inverse relationship). ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 39 Correlation Coefficients Which correlation is stronger? 0 or -0.5 ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 40 Correlational studies Advantages Disadvantages ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 41 Cautions About Correlations Do NOT show cause & effect relationship Correlation ≠ Causation! Relationship may be caused by other factors! ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 42 Qualitative OR Quantitative? Some questions What is the difference? Measurable or observable? Data collection Objective or subjective ? Possible bias if researcher is immersed in research? Bias in interpretation of information? Making qualitative data quantifiable Use coding of information gathered in qualitative research Analysing Tool: Nvivo - “N(umerical) VI(sual) VO(ic) Qualitative Data Analysis.” for qualitative and mixed-methods research. NVivo assists researchers in organizing, analyzing, and gaining insights from qualitative data such as interviews, surveys, articles, and multimedia content. **Vo(ic): Visual, Oral, Interpretive, and Computer-Aided ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 43 ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 44 ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 45 Research Ethics Ethical issues in psychological research: Informed consent Anonymity and confidentiality Minimal risk Debriefing American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct Shields participants from potentially harmful procedures Institutional Review Board (IRB) Examines all studies proposed ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 46 ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 47  Note: Seminars 2-4 will focus on practicing exam PSY107 Compulsory qn 1b (illustrating accurate sentence based on given Breakout class activities for Seminars 2-6 concepts); Seminars 5 & 6 are for qn 1a (identifying PSY107 Concepts tested: use of inaccurate concepts and amending them (1b). Seminar 1: No activity Introduction Seminar 2: Positive correlation, naturalistic observation, confirmation bias Research methods Seminar 3: Hippocampus, sympathetic nervous system, motor neurons Biological Basis Seminar 4: Top-down processing, bottom-up processing, Gestalt law of proximity Sensation/Perception Seminar 5: Chunking, retroactive interference, false memory, retrieval cue, semantic Memory memory Seminar 6: Schema, functional fixedness, fluid intelligence, natural concepts, prototype Thinking/Intelligence ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 48  Breakout activity Demonstrate your understanding of how you would describe the following THREE concepts by applying them to develop a cohesive story (fictitious or real). Indicate each concept applied within brackets and in bold font (like this) after the relevant segment of your story. Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3 [Word limit = 200 words] ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 49  Breakout Room Group Activity (Take note: We will practice 3 concepts every week but, in the exams, there are 4 concepts) Demonstrate your understanding of how you would describe the following THREE concepts by applying them to develop a cohesive story (fictitious or real). Indicate each concept applied within brackets and in bold font (like this) after the relevant segment of your story. positive correlation naturalistic observation confirmation bias [Word limit = 200 words] ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 50 How to Attempt the Activity: Brainstorming Ideas 1. Look up the definition and description of the concepts 2. Try to give an example for each concept 3. Develop a cohesive story by applying the three assigned concepts 4. Check to see that the story is relevant with the specific concepts used and makes sense. 5. Make sure the word count is within the limit. Click on this link: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1o4I_HwkO5ko1b_pyzzHArFGrWSrlV mvb?usp=sharing ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 51  Some Key Terms Attrition: reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time Cause-and-effect relationship: changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design Case study: observational research study focusing on one or a few people in which investigators report data on one in great detail Confirmation bias: tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs Confounding variable: unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables: Control group: serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups Correlation: relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does Correlation coefficient: number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by symbol r Cross-sectional research: compares multiple segments of a population at a single time ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 52  Some Key Terms (cont.) Debriefing: when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion Deception: purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment dependent variable: variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had Descriptive Statistics: summarising and describing the data (measures of centre and distribution/spread) double-blind study: experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments Empirical: grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing experimental group: group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance experimenter bias: researcher expectations skew the results of the study Falsifiable: able to be disproven by experimental results Generalise: inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population hypothesis(plural: hypotheses): tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables independent variable: variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 53  Some Key Terms (cont.) Informed consent: process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then obtaining the person’s consent to participate Institutional review board (IRB: committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants Inter-rater reliability: measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event Longitudinal research: studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time Naturalistic observation: observation of behaviour in its natural setting Negative correlation: two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation Observer bias/expectancy bias: when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations Operational definition: description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables Opinion: personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate Participants: subjects of psychological research Peer-reviewed journal article: article read by several other scientists (usually anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for publication Placebo effect: people’s expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation Population: overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 54  Some Key Terms (cont.) Positive correlation: two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller Random assignment: method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group Random sample: subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected Reliability: consistency and reproducibility of a given result Replicate: repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research’s reliability Sample: subset of individuals selected from the larger population Single-blind study: experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group Statistical analysis: determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance Statistical significance: a calculation that takes the effect size, variability, and number of observations and determines the degree to which an observed difference in sample means reflects a real difference in population means and is not attributable to chance Survey: list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people Theory: well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena Validity: accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved 55 Any Questions? Comments? Yes? No? Thanks for your attendance & participation See you next week! REMINDER: Please attempt Pre-Seminar Task (for Seminar 3) in the Discussion Board (in T07) by Sunday 11.55pm before Seminar 03 (no grace period). Upcoming Seminar (S03): Biological Basis of Human Behaviour 56 ©2024 PSY107_IKS@SUSS/SEM02. All rights reserved