General Biology 1: Biomolecules: Carbohydrates & Lipids PDF

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 / MR. REYMARK PLACAMBO SEM BiOMOLECULES: CARBOHYDRATES & LiPiDS 01 [MODULE 1] BI...

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 / MR. REYMARK PLACAMBO SEM BiOMOLECULES: CARBOHYDRATES & LiPiDS 01 [MODULE 1] BIOMOLECULES: CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS BIOMOLECULES GLYCOSIDIC BOND Major categories of Biomolecules Linking bond: connects one (1) monosaccharide to another o Carbohydrates because of the dehydration synthesis or the condensation o Lipids reaction o Proteins o Nucleic Acid CARBOHYDRATES: FOOD SOURCE All biomolecules are composed of monomer and polymer Simple carbs (simple sugars) are found in most candy and o How are they formed? sweet drinks, fruits, vegetables, and milk. They are quick to § Dehydration Synthesis digest and give short burst of energy. § Hydrolysis Reaction Complex carbs (like starches) are found in pasta, bread, potatoes, legumes, and corn. They take longer to digest Polymer Monomer and prove energy longer. Carbohydrates Polysaccharides Monosaccharides (Starch, (Glucose, LIPIDS Glycogen, etc.) Fructose, etc.) All lipids are insoluble in water. Emulsifiers allow lipids to Lipids Fats Triglycerides: mix in water. (Triglycerides, Glycerol and Fatty They are hydrophobic. Oils, Waxes) Acids They have extremely diverse chemical structures. Proteins Protein; Amino Acids Polypeptides They are classified to differences in structure and function Functions of Lipids: Nucleic Acid DNA & RNA Nucleotides o Fats – energy storage molecules, insulators (GCAT and against heat loss, and cushion tissue for organs. GCAU) o Oils – are generally something in our diet, however they are converted to fats in our bodies CARBOHYDRATES and therefore only function as a nutrient. Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen: CnH2nOn o Phospholipids – main component of membranes. Source of energy o Steroids – hormones (messenger molecules) and The smallest carbohydrate is called monosaccharides, are components of cell membranes (cholesterol) while the complex carbohydrate is polysaccharides All carbohydrates have approximately 2 hydrogen atoms TRIGLYCERIDES OR FATS and 1 oxygen atom (e.g., water) for each carbon atom Energy storage and insulations hence the name ‘hydrates of carbon.’ Cushioning of vital organs All formed from one glycerol molecule reacted with three MONOSACCHARIDES fatty acid molecules through a condensation synthesis Building block of carbohydrates reaction. Major cellular nutrient Made out of 2 basic units (building blocks): Often incorporated into more complex carbohydrates o Glycerol (alcohol) – is a three (3) carbon molecule Can be converted into other organic molecules that formed the backbone of triglyceride Example: Glucose, Galactose, Fructose o Fatty Acids – consists of three (3) long Mnemonics: GGF (Gives Good Flavor) hydrocarbon chains that divides these fats into two groups: DISACCHARIDES § Saturated Fatty Acid – no double bonds, Energy source solid (at room temp) Sweetener and dietary component § Unsaturated Fatty Acids – one or more Composed of two or monomers joined by a glycosidic bond double bonds, liquid (at room temp) Example: Lactose (galactose + glucose), Sucrose (glucose + fructose), Maltose (glucose + glucose) TYPES OF FATS IN OILS Mnemonics: LSM (Length Supports Movement) SATURATED MONOUNSATURATED Chain of carbon atoms Chain of carbon atoms POLYSACCHARIDES “saturated” with with one double bond Consist of hundreds of linked monosaccharides hydrogen Liquid at room temp Complex carbohydrates Solid at room temp Lower melting point Storage and structural material High melting point Example: Cellulose, Glycogen, Starch POLYUNSATURATED TRANS FATS Mnemonics: CGS (Can Get Stored) Chain of carbon atoms Partuoally hydrogenated with multiple double (adding hydrogen bonds causes trans fat to form) Liquid at room temp K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 1  MODULE 1: BIOMOLECULES: CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS Lowest melting point Liquid oils industrially converted into solids High melting points PROPERTIES OF FATS AND OILS Oil – a mixture of triacylglycerols that is liquid because it contains a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. Fat – a mixture of triacylglycerols that is solid because it contains a high proportion of saturated fatty acids PHOSPHOLIPIDS Major component of cell membranes. A cell membrane is made up of two phospholipids; o Polar head (hydrophilic) – organic molecule (e.g. choline) and a phosphate group o Non-polar tail (hydrophobic) – Diglyceride: glycerol + 2 fatty acids The phosphate/Nitrogen group is charge and phospholipids therefore have non-polar hydrophobic regions (fatty acids and the glycerol) and polar hydrophilic regions (the phosphate/nitrogen group). STEROIDS Structure: four interconnected carbon rings. (ex. vitamin D, cortisone, cholesterol) Steroids have two principal biological functions: as important components of cell membranes which alter membrane fluidity; and as signaling molecules. Base of sex hormones Emulsification of fats during digestion CHOLESTEROL Good Cholesterol (High-Density Lipoprotein) – carries cholesterol from other parts of your body back to your liver. Bad Cholesterol (Low-Density Lipoprotein) – transports cholesterol from the liver to the tissues of the body. HEALTH FACTS Saturated fats are associated with heart disease Fatty acids promote higher levels of blood cholesterol Animal fats also contain cholesterol, plants have no cholesterol K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 2 GENERAL BiOLOGY 1 / MR. REYMARK PLACAMBO SEM BiOMOLECULES: PROTEiNS AND NUCLEiC 01 ACiDS; ENZYMES [MODULE 2] BIOMOLECULES: PROTEINS AND NUCLEIC ACIDS; ENYZMES PROTEINS Phenylalanine Proline Protein is an energy-yielding nutrient composed of carbon, Threonine Serine hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Tryptophan Tyrosine Differs from carbohydrates and fats because of the Valine presence of nitrogen. Lysine (usually, non- The body has at least 30,000 types of protein, each with a essential escept in different job (many roles) times of illness and The building blocks of all protein molecules are amino stress) acids In eukaryotes, there are only 21 proteinogenic amino acids, the Complex structure 20 of the standard genetic code, plus selenocysteine. Energy Source DISTRIBUTION OF PROTEINS IN THE BODY AMINO ACID Muscle Possess carboxyl and amino groups Bone Differ in their properties due to differing side chains (R Skin Groups) Other: blood, glands, nerve, tissue HOW ARE THESE AMINO ACIDS LINKED? PROTEIN FUNCTIONS A peptide bond is a chemical bond formed between two Enzymatic (rubisco) molecules when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts Storage (ferritin) with the amino group of the other molecule, releasing a Structural (spider silk) molecule of water (H2O) Protection (immunoglobulin) This is a dehydration synthesis reaction (also known as a Hormonal (insulin) condensation reaction), and usually occurs between amino Contractile (actin) acids. Receptor (rhodopsin) Two linked amino acids forms a dipeptide, three forms a Transport (hemoglobin) tripeptide, and long chains of amino acids are polypeptide STRUCTURAL ROLES FOUR LEVELS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE Keratin Primary Structure - Amino acid sequence o Makes up hair and nails Secondary Structure - Hydrogen bonding Collagen Tertiary Structure - Side chain interactions o Supports in ligaments, tendons, and skin Quaternary Structure - 2 of more polypeptides Actin and Myosin o Make up muscle fibers in muscle cells that allow AMINO ACIDS CAN BE CLASSIFIED IN TWO WAYS: contraction and are major component of the Essential Amino Acids cytoskeleton of cells. o There are 21 amino acids that are required for Histones building proteins in our bodies. o Protein associated with DNA to make § Essential/Indispensable amino acids chromosomes. must be ingested since our bodies do not Intercellular Filaments manufacture these molecules o Hold cells together. § 9 amino acids that come from the diet Non-Essential Amino Acids HORMONAL ROLES o Non-essential/dispensable amino acids can be Insulin made by our bodies from other amino acids. o Messenger molecule in blood from pancreas that § Your body can synthesize 11 of the signals for cells to absorb glucose. amino acids from the other amino acids Cyclin o Messenger molecule in blood to signal cells to go Conditionally into stages of mitosis Essential Non-Essential Non-Essential Histidine Arganine Alanine TRANSPORTATION ROLES Isoleucine Asparagine Asparatate Hemoglobin Leucine Glutamine Cysteine o Transports oxygen to the blood Methionine Glycine Glutamine K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 1  MODULE 2: BIOMOLECULES: PROTEINS AND NUCLEIC ACIDS; ENZYMES DENATURATION THERE ARE FIVE NITROGENEOUS BASES IN TOTAL The protein we consume can be altered and changed but can never return to its initial form. This is called denaturation. Factors that cause denaturation: o Heat o Acids o Bases o Alcohol NUCLEIC ACIDS Store and transmit hereditary/genetic information POLYNUCLEOTIDE Nucleic acid is a polymer consisting of monomers called the Unique sequence of nucleotides nucleotides and polynucleotides Types: Are large organic molecules that carry the “code of life” o Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) 2 main types of nucleic acids: o Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) o Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – double helix o Ribonucleic acid (RNA) – single helix DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID Stores information for the synthesis of specific proteins NUCLEOSIDE Directs rRNA synthesis The substructure composed of nucleobase plus sugar; Deoxyribose without phosphate A, T, C, G 4 N-containing bases found in DNA: Forms a double helix o Guanine o Cytosine o Adenine o Thymine For RNA, thymine is replaced with Uracil NUCLEOTIDE Consists of: RIBONUCLEIC ACID o Pentose sugar Essential in coding, decoding, expression, and regulation of o Nitrogenous base genes o Phosphate group Single chain A, C, G, U K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 2  MODULE 2: BIOMOLECULES: PROTEINS AND NUCLEIC ACIDS; ENZYMES MELTING AND RE-ANNEALING MECHANISM High temperature and/or low salt concentration causes the In most instances, only one small part of the enzymes, two strands to melt or disassociate. called the active site, associates directly with the substrate o Hybridization: in a mixture of DNA with different (s). sequences, the complementary strands will find each other in the mixture. METABOLIC PATHWAY A series of linked reactions Begin with a particular reactant and end with a final product. SUBSTRATE BINDING Binding a substrate induces the conformational changes in enzyme molecule (induced fit model) An enzyme-substrate (ES) complex is formed LOCK AND KEY MODEL The lock and key model of enzyme action, proposed earlier JAMES WATSON & FRANCIS CRICK this century, proposed that the substrate was simply drawn Describes DNA as a double helical structure into a closely matching cleft on the enzyme molecule. ENZYMES AND FACTOR AFFECTING ITS ACTIVITY ENZYMES It increases the speed of chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction. o Not all enzymes are proteins. § Ex. Ribozymes – made of RNA INDUCED FIT MODEL The induced fit model is the configurations of both the enzyme and substrate are modified by substrate binding. This model proposes that the initial interaction between enzyme and substrate is relatively weak, but that these weak interactions rapidly induce conformational changes in the enzyme that strengthen binding. STRUCTURE OF ENZYMES Enzyme Structure o Proteins that work as catalyst o Speed up chemical reactions without being altered themselves. ENERGY OF ACTIVATION (EA) The energy that must be added to cause molecules to react with one another K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 3  MODULE 2: BIOMOLECULES: PROTEINS AND NUCLEIC ACIDS; ENZYMES SUMMARY OF CARBOHYDRATES, NUCLEIC ACIDS, LIPIDS, AND PROTEINS FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY Substrate Concentration o Enzyme activity increases as substrate concentration increases. Optimal pH o Each enzyme has an optimal pH at which the reaction rate is highest Temperature o As temperature rises, enzyme activity increases o Denaturation EXCEPTIONS Environmental influence Bacteria living in hot springs have enzymes that withstand high temperatures Enzyme inhibition o Occurs when a molecule (the inhibitor) binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity. Noncompetitive inhibition o The inhibitor binds to the enzyme at a location other than the active site known as the allosteric site, thus changing its shape and its function. Competitive inhibition o Occurs when an inhibitor and the substrate compete for the active site of an enzyme. K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 4 GENERAL BiOLOGY 1 / MR. REYMARK PLACAMBO SEM CELLS 01 [MODULE 3] CELL THEORY, STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS, AND PROKA VS. EUKA CELL The cell is the smallest unit of matter that can carry on the 1831 processes of life. o Robert Brown o “All living things are made of cells.” CELL SHAPE 1838 Cells come in variety of shapes depending on their o Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann functions. o Plant Cell and Animal Cell Example: o “Cells are the basic unit of life.” o Neuron – long and thin 1858 o Blood Cells – rounded disks o Rudolph Virchow o “All cells come from pre-existing cells.” CELL SIZE Few cells are large enough to be seen by the unaided eye. THE CELL THEORY Most cells can only be seen by the aid of a microscope All living things or organisms are made of cells Cells are the basic building units of life INTERNAL ORGANIZATION New cells are created by old cells dividing into two Cells contain a variety of internal structures called organelles EXCEPTIONS Viruses BASIC CELL PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS Mitochondria Cell Membrane Chloroplast o Outer layer of the cell o Selectively permeable TYPES OF CELLS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS o Composed of double layer phospholipids in which (PROKARYOTES VS EUKOARYOTES) proteins are embedded Cells are divided into two types: o Physically separates the intracellular space and o Prokaryote the external environment of the cell o Eukaryote o Surrounds and protects the cytoplasm Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, Cytoplasm showing a view of the origins of eukaryotes & prokaryotes. o Enclosed by the cell membrane o The cytosol is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm PROKARYOTIC CELLS o It has three (3) components: Single compartment enclosed by a cell membrane § The cytoskeleton Lacks nucleus § Organelles § Cytoplasmic inclusions and dissolved No membrane-bound organelles solutes Two main groups: Genetic Material o Archaea o Referred as the DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) o Bacteria o DNA is found in the NUCLEUS of EUKARYOTIC cells (animals and plants) and in the CYTOPLASM BACTERIAL CELL of PROKARYOTIC cells (bacteria) that determines Flagellum (only in some types of prokaryotes) the composition of an organism. o Long, whip-like protrusion that aids cellular Ribosome locomotion. o Structures that manufacture proteins (synthesizes Capsule (only in some type of prokaryotes) protein o Adds protection or enables the cell to attach to surfaces. CELL THEORY Cell Wall (except genera Mycoplasma and Thermoplasma) 1665 o Outer covering of most cells that protects the o Robert Hooke bacterial cell and gives it shape. o Coarse compound microscope Cell Membrane o Very thin slices of cork o Surrounds the cell's cytoplasm and regulates the o Hooke called them cells. His description of these flow of substances in and out of the cell. cells where published in Micrographia Cytoplasm 1674 o A gel-like substance composed mainly of water o Anton van Leeuwenhoek that also contains enzymes, salts, cell o Animalcules components, and various organic molecules. o He also described the algae Spirogyra Ribosome o Cell structure responsible for protein production. K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 1  MODULE 3: CELL THEORY, STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS, AND PROKA VS. EUKA Nucleoid o Functions: Responsible for digestion of nutrients, o Area of the cytoplasm that contains the bacteria and damaged cells prokaryote's single DNA molecule Pili o Serves as an attachment of bacterial cells to other Peroxisome cells o Characteristics: Spherical membranous vesicles that contain enzymes ARCHAEAN CELLS o Function: Detoxify harmful molecules and the enzymes produced are involved in the oxidative Resembles bacterial cells in some ways. Like bacteria, they deamination of amino acids and breakdown of are smaller and lacks nucleus and are also one celled hydrogen peroxide. organism. Vacuoles o Characteristics: Membranous sac EUKARYOTES CELLS o Function: Store and release various substances One of the two major cell types within the cytoplasm, responsible for cell Has nucleus and membrane-bound organelles enlargement and water balance Both animals and plants have eukaryotic cells. Cytoskeleton: o Characteristics: Dense network of protein fibers PARTS o Function: Provides a framework that supports the Cell Membrane shape of the cell and anchors organelles o Characteristic: The outer layer of a cell o Elements: o Function: Regulates the entrance and exit of § Microfilaments – responsible for cellular substances in the cell movements such as contraction, Cytoplasm pinching during division, and formation o Characteristics: A jelly-like substance which is for cellular extensions composed of water with dissolved substances § Microtubules – responsible for the o Functions: Responsible for the fluid nature of the movement of chromosomes in mitosis cell’s internal environment and allows the § Microtubules – responsible for the organelles to suspend dynamically. movement of chromosomes in mitosis Ribosomes Cell Wall o Characteristics: Occur as free particles suspended o Characteristics: The outermost layer of plant cells within the cytoplasm or attached to the that contains cellulose membranous wall of the ER o Function: Provides support to the plant’s body o Functions: Synthesizes protein molecules Nucleus Endoplasmic Reticulum o Characteristics: Bounded by a membrane o Characteristics: Series of membranous channels o Function: Controls or regulates all chemical that forms a continuous network extending from reactions within the cell the cell membrane to the nucleus o Function: § Rough ER – associated with active protein synthesis process § Smooth ER – no ribosomes; involved in the synthesis and transport of lipids Golgi Apparatus o Characteristics: Cluster of flattened membranous sacs that are continuous with the channels of smooth ER o Function: § For storage, modification and packing of materials produced for secretory export § Involved in the formation of lysosomes and other transport vesicles of the cell Lecture Video / Source: Part 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kpaqTm1BTL0 Mitochondria Part 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCTw8bRCFDM o Characteristics: Double walled membranous sacs with folded inner partitions called cristae o Function: Release energy from food molecules and transforms it into usable ATP Chloroplast o Characteristics: Double membrane organelles with inner flattened sacs called thylakoids o Function: Responsible for the conversion of light energy into chemical energy of sugars during photosynthesis Lysosome: o Characteristics: Single walled membranous sacs. K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 2 GENERAL BiOLOGY 1 / MR. REYMARK PLACAMBO SEM ANiMAL AND PLANT CELLS 01 [MODULE 4-5] ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS TISSUES o Cuboidal Tissues is a combination of similar cells that work together § Cube-shaped cells to perform a particular function. § Absorb nutrients; produce secretions o Columnar CATEGORIES OF ANIMAL TISSUES § Tall and thin § Absorb nutrients; produce secretions NERVOUS TISSUE Nervous Tissues uses electrical signals to convey LAYERING information rapidly within an animal’s body. Simple – one layer Neuron (First Main Cell Type) Stratified – two or more layers o Forms communication networks that receive, Pseudostratified – mostly just one layer, cells with different process, and transmit information. shapes and sizes o Neuron is made up of: § Dendrites – transmit information toward NAMING EPITHELIAL TISSUES the cell body. Tissue’s first name as its number of layers, and its last § Cell Body – contains the nucleus, name as the shape of its cells mitochondria, ribosomes and other organelles. Example: § Axon – conducts nerve impulses away Simple Squamous Epithelium – single layer, flat, scale- from the cell body. like cells Neuroglial/Glial Cells (Second Main Cell Type) Stratified Squamous Epithelium – multiple layer, flat o Supports the neurons and assist in their shaped cells functioning. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium – multiple layers, cube shaped MUSCLE TISSUE This consists of cells that contract when electrically Usual locations: stimulated. Simple Squamous Stratified Squamous It allows the movement of other tissues and organs. Animal bodies have three types of muscle tissues: Air sacs of the lungs Skin Lining of blood vessels, Vagina SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE heart and lymphatic Esophagus Long multinucleate parallel cells; striations (fine black lines tubes Mouth running perpendicular to the fibers); voluntary Cubodial Simple Columnar Occur in muscles which are attached to the skeleton. Line the digestive tract, CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE Kidney tubules gallbladder and Duct and small glands excretory ducts of some Striated; involuntary; cells divided and converge, one Surface of ovary glands. Has microvilli at nucleus per cell, with intercalated discs. surface for absorption. Occurs only in the heart. Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE Lines the bronchi, trachea, uterine tubes and some of Short tapered cells; no striations involuntary the uterus. Propels mucus or reproductive cells by Located in walls of hollow visceral organs, except the heart. ciliary action EPITHELIAL TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUE Epithelial Tissue is the shape of the individual cells and the The most widespread tissue in the vertebrate’s body is the number of layers they form Connective Tissue. It consists of cells that are embedded within the extra cellular matrix rather than being attached to CELL’S SHAPE one another. The shape of each kind of epithelial cell correlates with its Connective Tissue fills the spaces attach epithelium to function. other tissues, protect and question organs, and provide o Squamous both flexible and firm structural support. § Flattened cells or fish scale, thin § Fast absorption and diffusion, making LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE thin membranes Composition: Cells in loose matrix of elastin and collagen fibers. K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 1  MODULE 4-5: ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS Functions: Holds organs in place; attaches epithelial tissue o Lateral Meristem to underlying tissue. § In addition to the apical meristems Location: Under skin, between organs located in the shoot and root tups, plants in the DICOT class have lateral DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE meristems. § Lateral meristem cause secondary Composition: Cells in dense matric of elastin and collagen growth fibers § Secondary growth causes stems and Functions: Connects muscle to bone (tendons); connects roots to grow larger in diameter bone to bone (ligaments) § Also known as cambium Location: Tendons and ligaments Vascular Cambium – located between the xylem and phloem ADIPOSE TISSUE and gives rise to secondary Composition: Fat cells in minimal matrix xylem and phloem. Functions: Stores fat for energy and insulation Cork Cambium – located Location: Beneath the skin, between muscles, around heart outside the phloem and gives and joints rise to the cork which consists of suberized cells. BLOOD o Intercalary Meristem § Occurs between mature tissue sections Composition: Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets in near the stem internodes or leaf plasma matrix attachments Functions: Transport gases, nutrients, wastes hormones § Can be found only in monocotyledons Location: In arteries, veins, and capillaries APICAL INTERCALARY LATERAL CARTILAGE MERISTEM MERISTEM MERISTEM Composition: Cells in matrix of fine collagen fibers The area of The area of Functions: Flexible support actively dividing The area of actively dividing Location: Ears, joints, bone ends, respiratory tract cells that locates actively dividing cells that locates at the tips of the cells that locates at the lateral side BONE roots and the at the internodes. of the stem and shoots. the root. Composition: Cells in matrix of collagen and minerals POSITION Functions: Firm support Location: Skeleton Internodes or at Lateral surface of Tips of root and the base of the the stem and the shoot. leaves. root. Summary: FUNCTIONAL ROLE Epithelial tissue – Covers interior and exterior surfaces Aids increase of Increases the of organs. It is also for protection, secretion, and height of the plant Contributes to the thickness of the absorption. by facilitating the increase in height, plant by Connective Tissue – Gives support, adhesion, growth of the with the growth of increasing the insulation, attachment, and transportation. shoot and the the internodes. diameter of the Muscle Tissue – For movement root. plant. Nervous Tissue – For rapid communication among cells PLANT TISSUES PERMANENT TISSUES Are formed by the differentiation of meristematic cells, MERISTEMATIC TISSUE which become specialized to perform specific functions like protection, support, storage, and transport of food and Is composed of a small population of meristematic cells water. which grow and divide to produce new cells, but never mature themselves. There are three types of Permanent Tissues o Dermal Tissues Characteristics: § Consists of the Epidermis and Periderm o Small size o Very thin primary wall Epidermis o No central vacuole o Is a single layer of o Dense cytoplasm closely packed cells o The nucleus occupies a large part of the cell o Stoma, trichomes, and root hairs Main Types of Meristem: o Apical Meristem Periderm § Occur at the tips of the roots and shoots o Also called as bark § Responsible for the extension in length of which replaces the the plant body (primary growth) epidermis in plants that undergo secondary growth. K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 2  MODULE 4-5: ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS o Ground Tissues § Comprise of Parenchyma, Collenchyma, and Sclerenchyma Parenchyma o Are usually described as typical plant cells because they are not very specialized. Collenchyma o Bears a strong resemblance to parenchyma cells. Sclerenchyma o They have thick secondary walls usually strengthened by lignin and are much more rigid. o Vascular Tissues § Includes the Xylem and Phloem Phloem o Which transports dissolved nutrients in all directions within the plant (PMF). o Phloem Fibre, Companion Cells, Phloem Parenchyma, Sieve Tubes Xylem o Which conducts water and minerals from roots upward and throughout the plant (XUW). o Xylem Parenchyma, Xylem Fibre, Vessel, and Tracheids Lecture Video / Source: Nervous and Muscle Tissues: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxBq2d5eS54 Epithelial Tissue: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uqqapB1tcz0 Connective Tissue: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xbyhSDb5fgk Meristematic Tissues: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3zgbQRGqgS8 Permanent Tissues: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yQbZGru4gBU K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 3 GENERAL BiOLOGY 1 / MR. REYMARK PLACAMBO SEM TRANSPORT MECHANiSMS 01 [MODULE 6] TRANSPORT MECHSANISM CELL MEMBRANE Isotonic – the cell’s interior is normally isotonic to the A phospholipid bilayer studded with proteins surrounding blood plasma. Water enters and leaves the cell at the same rate and the cell maintains its shape. TYPES OF TRANSPORT MECHANISM Hypotonic – when the salt concentration of the plasma decreases, water flows into the cell faster than it leaves. PASSIVE TRANSPORT The cell swells and may even burst. Does not require energy input Hypertonic – where in the salty surroundings, the cell loses In passive transport, a substance can move across a water and shrinks or shrivels and may die for lack of water. membrane without the direct expenditure of energy. All forms of passive transport involves diffusion DIFFUSION The spontaneous movement of a substance from a region where it is more concentrated to a region where it is less concentrated. Diffusion is the natural tendency for molecules to move of potential energy constantly. SIMPLE DIFFUSION A substance moves down its concentration gradient without the use of transport protein. Substances may enter or leave cells by simple diffusion only if they pass freely through the membrane. Two solutions of different concentrations may be separated OSMOSIS OF PLANT CELL by a selectively permeable membrane through which water Isotonic – where it shows the normal cell, the cell is flaccid but not solutes can pass. In that case, water will diffuse Hypotonic – the interior of a plant cell usually contains more down its concentration gradient toward the side with a high concentrated solute than its surroundings. Water enter the solute concentration. cell by osmosis generating turgor pressure. Turgor pressure helps keep plants erect. OSMOSIS Hypertonic – the turgor pressure is low, therefore, the plant Is the simple diffusion of water across a selectively wilts. permeable membrane. FACILITATED DIFUSSION TONICITY A form of passive transport in which a membrane protein Is the ability of a solution to cause water movement assists the movement of a polar solute along its o Isotonic – equal (it is a condition in which solution concentration gradient. concentration is the same on both side of the semi- Ions and polar molecules cannot freely pass or cross the permeable membrane) hydrophobic later membrane, instead, transport proteins o Hypotonic – under (a solution in which the solute form channels that help these cross. concentration is less than on the other side of the Facilitated diffusion releases energy because the solute semi-permeable membrane) moves from where it is more concentrated to where it is less o Hypertonic – over (the solution concentration is concentrated. greater than on the other side of a semi-permeable membrane) ACTIVE TRANSPORT A cell uses a transport protein to move a substance against OSMOSIS IN RED BLOOD CELLS its concentration gradient from where it is less concentrated to where it is more concentrated. Because a gradient represents a form of potential energy, the cell must expend energy to create it. This energy often comes from ATP, therefore, active transport requires energy input. SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP Active transport system in the membranes of most animal cell. Uses ATP as an energy source to expel 3 Na+ for every 2 K+ it admits. K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 1  MODULE 6: TRANSPORT MECHANISM It uses energy release in ATP hydrolysis to move potassium ions into the cell and sodium ions out of the cell. The process caused energy because both types of ions are moving from where it is less concentrated to where they are more concentrated. TRANSPORT USING VESICLES Most molecules dissolve in water are small. They can cross the cell membrane by simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or active transport. Large particles, however, must enter and leave cells with the help of transport vesicles. A vesicle is a small sac that can pinch off of or fuse with a cell membrane ENDOCYTOSIS A cell membrane engulfs fluids and large molecules to bring them into the cell. When the cell membrane indents, a bubble of membrane closes in on itself. The resulting vesicle traps incoming substance. The formation and movement of this vesicle requires energy. Types of Endocytosis: o Pinocytosis § The substance engulfed is liquid (the cell involves small amounts of fluids and dissolves substances) § “Cell drinking” o Phagocytosis § The substance engulfed is solid § “Cell eating” EXOCYTOSIS The opposite of endocytosis, uses vesicles to transport fluids and large particles out of the cells. Inside the cell, the Golgi apparatus produces vesicles filled with substances to be secreted. The vesicle moves to the cell membrane and joins with it releasing the substance out of the cell. Lecture Video / Source: Passive Transport: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JClLadVCi60 Active and Transport with Vesicles: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITo54aFHl-Q K. HERRERA | 12 - COTTAM 2