Biology.pdf

BIOLOGY MAJOR CATEGORIES OF BIOMOLECULES 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic acids MONOMER & POLYMER - All biomolecules are composed of monomers and polymers. Monomer - Atoms or small molecules. Polymer - Monomers bonded together to form more complex structures....

BIOLOGY MAJOR CATEGORIES OF BIOMOLECULES 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic acids MONOMER & POLYMER - All biomolecules are composed of monomers and polymers. Monomer - Atoms or small molecules. Polymer - Monomers bonded together to form more complex structures. DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS 1. Water covers the sides of molecules or compounds. 2. Water is removed through dehydration synthesis (dehydration nga eh). 3. When water is removed, the molecules or compounds combine. 4. Ex. sad single pair of tao, nag ulan, nag pa shade sa bus stop tas sila lang dalawa nandoon = (after 16 episodes of misunderstanding and drama) naging sila na. HYDROLYSIS SYNTHESIS 1. Bonded molecules or compounds. 2. Water is introduced to them which separates them. 3. Ex. happy couple nag date pero gi lunod bigla ng tsunami = couple not together anymore. CARBOHYDRATES - CnH2nOn - Source of energy - All carbohydrates have water (H2O) for each carbon atom hence, carbo(n)hydrates. 1. MONOSACCHARIDES - Saccharides = sugar - Often incorporated into more complex carbohydrates. - Can be converted into other organic molecules. a. Glucose b. Galactose c. Fructose - Isomers = same chemical formula but different structural formula. - *-ous = sugar -ace=enzyme 2. DISACCHARIDES - Energy source. - Sweetener and dietary component. - Joined by glycosidic bonds through dehydration synthesis. a. Lactose (galactose + glucose) b. Sucrose (glucose + fructose) c. Maltose (glucose + glucose) 3. POLYSACCHARIDES - Consists of hundreds of linked monosaccharides. - Complex carbohydrates. - Storage & structural material. a. Cellulose - Plant cell walls, indigestible, fiber b. Glycogen - Storage form of glucose in animals. c. Starch -Storage form of glucose in plants.  d. Chitin - Exoskeletons and cell walls of fungi. CARBOHYDRATES: FOOD SOURCES Simple Carbs - Simple sugars. - Found in most candy and sweet drinks, fruit, vegetables, and milk. - Gives a short burst of energy, Complex Carbs - Starches. - Are found in pasta, bread, potatoes, legumes, and corn. - It takes longer to digest. LIPIDS - All lipids are insoluble in water = hydrophobic. - Emulsifiers allow lipids to mix into water. - Have extremely diverse chemical structures. - Ester bonds. FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS FATS OR TRIGLYCERIDES - Energy storage molecules. - Insulators against heat loss. - Cushion tissue for organs. - All formed from one glycerol molecule reacted with three fatty acid molecules through a condensation synthesis reaction. a. Glycerol (alcohol) b. Fatty acids. SATURATED FATS - Lots of hydrogen = solid - No double bonds. - Solid at room temperature. - It has a high melting point. - Coconut oil, butter, etc. MONOUNSATURATED FATS - One double bond. - Liquid at room temperature. - Lower melting point. - Ex. olive oil. POLYUNSATURATED FATS - Multiple double bonds. - Liquid at room temperature. - Lowest melting point. - Ex. Sunflower oil. TRANS FAT - Partially hydrogenated. - Liquid oils industrially converted into solids (kaya nga trans eh noh, nag convert sa opposite from what they were)  - High melting point. - Shortening. PHOSPHOLIPIDS - One hydrophilic head, two hydrophobic tails. - Major component of cell membranes. - Responsible for the transport of fat between the intestine and the liver. STEROIDS - Structure: four interconnected carbon rings. - Functions: important components of cell membranes which alter membrane fluidity and as signaling molecules. - Base of sex hormones. - Emulsification of fats during digestion. CHOLESTEROL - The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils. HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN - Carries cholesterol from other parts of your body back to your liver. - Good cholesterol LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN - Transports cholesterol from the liver to the tissues of the body. - Bad cholesterol. PROTEINS - Energy-yielding nutrient composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. - 30,000 types of protein. AMINO ACIDS - Building blocks of protein. - Passes carboxyl and amino groups. - Differ in their properties due to differing side chains (R groups). - Peptide bond = a chemical bond formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the other molecule = dehydration synthesis. 1. ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS - There are 21 essential amino acids that are required for building proteins in our body. - 9 are found in our diet. 2. NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS - Can be made by our bodies from other amino acids. PROTEIN FUNCTIONS STRUCTURAL ROLES Keratin - hair and nails. Collagen - supports ligaments, tendons, and skin. Actin and Myosin- make up muscle fibres in muscle cells that allow contraction and are a major component of the cytoskeleton of cells. Histones - protein associated with DNA to make chromosomes. Intercellular filaments - hold cells together.  HORMONAL ROLES Insulin - messenger molecule in blood from pancreas that signals for cells to absorb glucose. Cyclin - messenger molecule in blood to signal cells to go into stages of mitosis. TRANSPORTATION ROLES Hemoglobin- transports oxygen to the blood. DENATURATION - The protein we consume can be altered and changed but can never return to its initial form. - Causes: heat, acids, bases, and alcohol. NUCLEIC ACIDS - Store hereditary information. - Large organic molecules that carry the “code of life.” - Phosphodiester and hydrogen bonds. I. NUCLEOSIDE - The substructure is composed of a nucleobase plus sugar; without phosphate. II. NUCLEOTIDE - Consists of pentose sugar, nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. - The monomer of nucleic acids. Purines = double ring structures (guanine and adenine) Pyrimidines = single ring structures (cytosine, thymine, and uracil) III. POLYNUCLEOTIDE - Unique sequence of nucleotides. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) - Stores information for the synthesis of specific proteins. - Cannot leave the nucleus. - Directs rRNA synthesis. - Deoxyribose. - AT CG - *AT has two hydrogen bonds while CG has three. HUMAN GENOME - A human genome (diploid) consists of about 6 x 109 base pairs of DNA. - A diploid cell has 46 chromosomes, 22 pairs of normal chromosomes, and 2 sex chromosomes. RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) - Essential in coding, decoding, expression, and regulation of genes. - AU CG MELTING AND REANNEALING - High temperature and/or low salt concentration causes the two strands to melt or disassociate. HYBRIDISATION - In a mixture of SNA with different sequences, the complementary strands will find each other in the mixture. JAMES WATSON AND FRANCIS CRICK - Describes DNA as a double helical structure. ENZYMES - Increases the speed of chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction. - Most are proteins. - In most instances, only one small part of the enzymes, called the active site, associates directly with the substances. - Weakens bonds which lowers activation energy. - Reusable. REDOX - Reduction & oxidation - Transfer of electrons. - LEO GER TWO MAJOR PARTS PROTEIN PART APOENZYME - Cannot catalyze the reaction by itself. - Inactive. NON-PROTEIN COENZYME - Made of organic molecules. - Vitamines. COFACTOR - Inorganic molecules. - Required for an enzyme's role for a catalyst. METABOLIC PATHWAY - A series of linked reactions. - Begin with a particular reactant and end with a final product. SUBSTRATE BINDING - Binding a substrate induces the conformational changes in enzyme molecules (induced fit model). - An enzyme-substrate (ES) complex is formed. 1. LOCK AND KEY MODEL - The substrate was simply drawn into a closely matching cleft on the enzyme molecule. 2. INDUCED FIT MODEL - The configurations of both the enzyme and substrate are modified by substrate binding.  ENERGY OF ACTIVATION (Ea) - The energy that must be added to cause molecules to react with one another. FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION - Enzyme activity increases as substrate concentration increases. OPTIMAL pH - Each enzyme has an optimal pH at which the reaction rate is highest. - Neutral pH=7 - Above 7 = base - Below 7 = acid TEMPERATURE - As temperature rises, enzyme activity increases. - Denaturation. - Exceptions: environmental influence. ENZYME INHIBITION - Occurs when a molecule (the inhibitor) binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity. NON-COMPETETIVE INHIBITION - The inhibitor binds to the enzyme at a location other than the active site known as the allosteric site, thus changing its shape and function. COMPETETIVE INHIBITION - Occurs when an inhibitor and the substrate compete for the active site of an enzyme. CELL - The smallest unit of matter that can carry all the processes of life. CELL SHAPE - Come in a variety of shapes depending on their functions. CELL SIZE - Few cells are large enough to be seen by the unaided eye. ORGANELLES - Internal structures of cells. FOUR MAIN COMPONENTS 1. CELL MEMBRANE  - Outer layer of the cell. - Selectively permeable. - Composed of a double layer of phospholipids in which proteins are embedded. 2. CYTOPLASM - Enclosed by the cell membrane. - Cytosol: the fluid portion of the cytoplasm. a. Cytoskeleton b. Organelles c. Cytoplasmic inclusions - Serves as the site for most of the enzymatic reactions and metabolic activities of the cell. 3. GENETIC MATERIAL - Referred to as DNA. - Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells. 4. RIBOSOME - Structures that manufacture proteins. CELL THEORY 1. All living things or organisms are made up of cells. 2. Cells are the basic building units of life. 3. New cells are created by old cells. PROKARYOTIC CELLS - Single compartment enclosed by a cell membrane. - Lacks a nucleus. - No membrane-bound organelles. - Archaea & bacteria FLAGELLUM - Only in some types of prokaryotes. - Long, whip-like protrusion that aids cellular locomotion. CAPSULE - Only in some types of prokaryotes. - Adds protection or enables the cell to attach to surfaces. CELL WALL - Except general Mycoplasma and Thermoplasma. - Outer covering of most cells that protects the bacterial cell and gives it hope. CELL MEMBRANE - Surrounds the cell’s cytoplasm and regulates the flow of substances in and out of the cell. CYTOPLASM - A gel-like substance composed mainly of water that also contains enzymes, salts, cell components, and various organic molecules. RIBOSOME - Cell structures responsible for protein production. NUCLEOID  - Area of the cytoplasm that contains the prokaryote’s single DNA molecule. PILI - Serves as an attachment of bacterial cells to other cells. EUKARYOTIC CELLS - One of the two major cell types. - Has nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. - Both animals and plants have eukaryotic cells. CELL MEMBRANE - The outer layer of a cell. - Regulates the entrance and exit of substances in the cell. CYTOPLASM - A jelly-like substance which is composed of water with dissolved substances. - Responsible for the fluid nature of the cell’s internal environment and allows the organelles to suspend dynamically. RIBOSOMES - Occur as free particles suspended within the cytoplasm or attached to the membranous wall of the ER. - Synthesize protein molecules. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - Series of membranous channels that forms a continuous network extending from the cell membrane to the nucleus. - Rough ER: associated with active protein synthesis process. - Smooth ER: no ribosomes; involved in the synthesis and transport of lipids. GOLGI APPARATUS - Cluster of flattened membranous sacs that are continuous with the channels of smooth ER. - For storage, modification, and packing of materials produced for secretory export. - Involved in the formation of lysosomes and other transport vesicles of the cell. MITOCHONDRIA - Double walled membranous sacs with folded inner partitions called cristae. - Release energy from food molecules and transform it into usable ATP. CHLOROPLASTS - Double membrane organelles with inner flattened sacs called thylakoids. - Responsible for the conversion of light energy into chemical energy of sugars during photosynthesis. LYSOSOMES - Single walled membranous sacs. - Responsible for digestion of nutrients, bacteria, and damaged cells. PEROXISOMES - Spherical membranous vesicles that contain enzymes. - Detoxify harmful molecules and the enzymes produced are involved in the oxidative deamination of amino acids and breakdown of hydrogen peroxide. VACUOLES - Membranous sac. - Store and release various substances within the cytoplasm, responsible for cell enlargement and water balance.  CYTOSKELETON - Dense network of protein fibers. - Provides a framework that supports the shape of the cell and anchors organelles. MICROFILAMENTS - Responsible for cellular movements such as contraction, pinching during division, and formation for cellular extensions. MICROTUBULES - Responsible for the movement of chromosomes in mitosis. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS - Provides structural reinforcement to the cell and organelles. CELL WALL - The outermost layer of plant cells that contains cellulose; provides support to the plant’s body. NUCLEUS - Bounded by a membrane. - Controls or regulates all chemical reactions within the cell. PLANT BOTH ANIMAL Cell wall Golgi apparatus No cell wall Large vacuole Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum Small of no vacuole Chloroplasts Nucleus No chloroplasts Flagella only in gametes Ribosomes Flagella Cytoplasm Mitochondrion PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL TYPES TISSUE - Is a combination of similar cells that work together to perform a particular function. PLANT CELL TYPES MERISTEMATIC TISSUE - Is composed of a small population of meristematic cells which grow and divide to produce new cells, but never mature themselves. - Plant growth only occurs in the meristematic regions that undergo active mitotic cell division. - Help in the growth of plants. a. Small size b. Very thin primary wall c. No central vacuole d. Dense cytoplasm e. The nucleus occupies a large part of the cell.  APICAL MERISTEM - Occur at the tips of the roots and shoots. - Responsible for the extension in length of the plant body (primary growth). LATERAL MERISTEM - Plants in the dicot class. - Cause secondary growth which causes stems and roots to grow larger in diameter. - Also known as cambium. VASCULAR CAMBIUM - Located between the xylem and phloem and gives rise to secondary xylem and phloem. CORK CAMBIUM - Located outside the phloem and gives rise to the cork layer which consists of suberized. INTERCALARY MERISTEM - Occurs between mature tissue sections near the stem internodes or leaf attachments. - Can be found only in monocotyledons. PERMANENT TISSUE - Are formed by the differentiation of meristematic cells, which become specialized to perform specific functions like protection, support, storage and transport of food and water. DERMAL TISSUES - Consist of epidermis and periderm. - Epidermis: is a single layer of closely packed cells. Stoma, trichomes, & root hairs. - Periderm: also called bark, which replaces the epidermis in plants that undergo secondary growth. GROUND TISSUE - Composed of parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. PARENCHYMA - Are usually described as typical plant cells because they are not very specialized. - Are most abundant. - Oval shaped, have thin cell walls, and lots of spaces between cells. - Aids in photosynthesis and storage, helps aquatic plants to float. COLLENCHYMA - Bears a strong resemblance to parenchyma cells. - Elongated, evenly thickened primary cell walls that stretch as the cells growth - Provides elasticity, mechanical support. SCLERENCHYMA - They have thick secondary walls usually strengthened by lignin and are much more rigid. - Dead, thick and rigid secondary walls which occupy most of the cell's volume.  - The cell walls contain lipid which makes it strong. VASCULAR TISSUES PHLOEM - Which transports dissolved nutrients in all directions within the plant (PMF). SIEVE TUBES - Aligns end to end to make a single functional unit. - Alive, but lack a nucleus and have little cytoplasm. - Adjacent to each sieve tube is at least one companion cell which is a cell that retains all of its organelles. PHLOEM FIBRE & PHLOEM PARENCHYMA - Transports food from the leaves to the other parts of the body. XYLEM - Which conducts water and minerals from roots upward and throughout the plant (XUW). TRACHEIDS - Long, narrow cells that overlap at tapered ends. VESSEL - Short, barrel shaped, conducting cells that stack from end to end, forming long continuous tubes. XYLEM PARENCHYMA & XYLEM FIBRE - Transports water and minerals from the roots to the other parts of the plant. ANIMAL CELL TYPES NERVOUS TISSUE NEURON - Forms communication networks that receive, process, and transmit information. Dendrites: Transmit information toward the cell body. Cell Body: contains the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and other organelles. Axon: conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body. NEUROGLIAL/GLIAL CELLS - Supports the neurons and assists in their functioning. MUSCLE TISSUE - Composed of cells that have the special ability to shorten or contract in order to produce movement of the body parts. SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE - Long multinucleate parallel cells; striations (fine black lines running perpendicular to the fibers); voluntary. CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE  - Striated; involuntary; cells divide and converge, one nucleus per cell, with intercalated discs. SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE - Short tapered cells; no striations; involuntary. - In the digestive tract. EPITHELIAL TISSUE - The shape of the individual cells and the number of layers that they form in. - Form the covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are the major tissue in glands. SHAPE OF CELLS - The shape of each kind of epithelial tissue correlates with its function. SQUAMOUS - Fast absorption and diffusion, making thin membranes. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS - Air sacs of the lungs. - Lining of blood vessels, heart, and lymphatic tubes. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS - Skin. - Vagina. - Esophagus. - Mouth. CUBOIDAL - Absorb nutrients; produce secretions. - Kidney tubules. - Duct and small glands. - Surface of ovary. COLUMNAR - Absorb nutrients; produce secretions. SIMPLE COLUMNAR - Line the digestive tract, gallbladder and excretory ducts of some glands. - Has microvilli at the surface for absorption. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED CILIATED COLUMNAR - Lines the bronchi, trachea, uterine tubes, and some of the uterus. - Propels mucus or reproductive cells by ciliary action. LAYERING - Tissue’s first name as its number of layers, and its last name as the shape of its cells. SIMPLE - One layer. STRATIFIED - Two or more layers.  PSEUDOSTRATIFIED - Mostly just one layer; cells with different shapes and sizes. CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Tissue that supports, protects, and gives structure to other tissue and organs in the body. - Stores fat, helps move nutrients and other substances between tissues and organs, and helps repaid damaged tissue. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Cells in loose matrix of elastin and collagen fibers. - Holds organs in place; attaches epithelial tissue to underlying tissue. - Under skin, between organs. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Cells in dense matrix of elastin and collagen fiber. - Connects muscle to bone; connects bone to bone. - Tendons and ligaments. ADIPOSE TISSUE - Fat cells in minimal matrix. - Stores fat for energy and insulation. - Beneath the skin, between muscles, around the heart and joints. BLOOD - Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets in plasma matrix. - Transport gasses, nutrients, wastes hormones. - In arteries, veins, and capillaries. CARTILAGE - Cells in matrix of fine collagen fibers. - Flexible support. - Ears, joints, bone ends, respiratory tract. BONE - Cells in matrix of collagen and minerals. - Firm support. - Skeleton. TRANSPORT MECHANISMS - Cell Membrane: A phospholipid bilayer studded with proteins. PASSIVE TRANSPORT - Does not require energy input. DIFFUSION - The spontaneous movement of a substance from a region where it is more concentrated to a region where it is less concentrated.  SIMPLE DIFFUSION - A substance moves down its concentration gradient without the use of transport protein. OSMOSIS - Simple diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. - Tonicity: is the ability of a solution to cause water movement. ISOTONIC - Equal. - Any external solution that has the same solute concentration and water concentration compared to body fluids. - Ex. the perfect condition of a red blood cell. HYPOTONIC - Under. - Has a lower solute concentration compared to the intracellular solute concentration. - Ex. the red blood cell bursts from the amount of water. HYPERTONIC - Over. - Any external solution that has a high solute concentration and low water concentration compared to body fluids. - Ex. the red blood cell shrivels due to being dry. FACILITATED DIFFUSION - A form of passive transport in which a membrane protein assists the movement of a polar solute along its concentration gradient. ACTIVE TRANSPORT - A cell uses a transport protein to move a substance against its concentration gradient. SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP - Uses ATP as an energy source to expel 3 Na+ for every 2 K+ it admits. TRANSPORT USING VESICLES ENDOCYTOSIS - A cell membrane engulfs fluids and large molecules to bring them into the cell. PINOCYTOSIS - The substance engulfed is liquid, - “Cell drinking.” PHAGOCYTOSIS - The substance engulfed is solid. - “Cell eating.” EXOCYTOSIS - The opposite of endocytosis, uses vesicles to transport fluids and large particles out of cells.