Long-Term Memory Lecture Notes PSYC 221 Fall 2024 PDF

Long-term Memory PSYC 221  Last week… Modal Model of Memory  Information flow in the Modal Model Last week = Sensory memory, STM Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)  Last week… Modal Model of Memory...

Long-term Memory PSYC 221  Last week… Modal Model of Memory  Information flow in the Modal Model Last week = Sensory memory, STM Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)  Last week… Modal Model of Memory Adjusted Modal Model of Memory Components of Working Memory: Baddeley’s Model CENTRAL EXECUTIVE -central pool of mental resources -control & decision processes (attention) PHONOLOGICAL VISUO-SPATIAL LOOP “SKETCH PAD” -”inner voice” -”inner eye” -verbal rehearsal -visual imagery -capacity = 7 +/- 2 -mental rotation Modal Model of Memory Adjusted Modal Model of Memory This week: Long-term memory  Information flow in the Modal Model This week = LTM Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)  Information flow in the Modal Model This week = LTM Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)  Basic Properties of LTM Capacity = functionally infinite? Duration = functionally infinite? Question: How does this compare with Sensory Memory, STM, and WM?  LTM: Retention/Duration We may retain certain memories for very long periods of time. Bahrick et al. (1975): tested 392 high school grads on their memory for classmates. Time after graduation ranged from 3.3 months to 48 yrs Free recall task: Write down who was in your graduating class Recognition task: Recognise faces and names  People recognise faces and names for a long time…up to Accuracy (%) 48 years later! Free recall of people from the past gets worse over time Bahrick et al. (1975)  Types of LTM Explicit/Declarative Memory Implicit Memory Semantic Episodic Procedural Implicit Conditioned Bias Responses  Types of LTM: Explicit/Declarative Memory Definition: Things that we know about the world Conscious awareness/access Further split into Semantic and Episodic Memory Semantic example: It doesn’t usually snow when the temperature is above 0 degrees Celsius. Episodic example: Yesterday I remember feeling sad.  Key Points about Semantic Memory (Tulving, 1972) Language (lexical memory) World knowledge Not temporally dated -> no mental time travel Highly organised -> protected from interference  Key Points about Episodic Memory (Tulving, 1972) Autobiographical Temporally dated (time/place) -> mental time travel Stronger interference from similar episodes Retrieval also serves as input (i.e., episodic memory is continually being updated)  Semantic and Episodic Memory rely on different Brain Regions Semantic = More frontal/parietal Episodic: more temporal/occipital Double dissociation evidence: Can have impairments in one type of memory but not the other Independence of memory types  Types of LTM Explicit/Declarative Memory Implicit Memory Semantic Episodic Procedural Conditioned Responses  Types of LTM: Implicit Memory Definition: No conscious access to information, but it influences behaviour/cognition May not remember ever learning it! 2 sub-types discussed today: 1) Procedural 2) Conditioning  Subtype I: Procedural Memory Definition: ‘how to do things’ memory Skills Hard to verbalise Try with a partner: Partner A describes STEP-BY-STEP to Partner B how to tie a shoelace How did it go?  Subtype II: Conditioned Responses Definition: Learn an association between 2 events -> forget specific experience -> shapes response Some lasting memory that maintains a response Example: Experience: Get lost in the forest a few times as a child and feel very scared Association: Forests are scary Over time: Lose access to the specific memories Response: Continue to be afraid of forests  The Illusory Truth Effect Definition: The more times you hear something, the more likely you are to believe it is true…even when you know it’s not… Kazio et al. 2019 Participants read a bunch of statements that vary in plausibility (ex. The Earth is square; A prune is a dried plum) Later, see some statements repeated Q: Do they believe the statements more after repetition?  The Illusory Truth Effect Larger illusory Some uncertainty = effect larger illusory truth effect But no significant difference between some uncertainty Smaller and more/less illusory certainty effect Low truthfulness High truthfulness Kazio et al., 2019  Recap of this section Capacity and duration of LTM Experimental example Types of LTM Declarative vs Implicit Subtypes within each category Illusory truth effect Muddiest point: Write down a question you have from the lecture so far See if a peer can answer the question for you  How does information get into LTM? Cover a few big theories/ideas today: 1) Rehearsal 2) Levels of Processing Transfer-Appropriate Processing 3) Encoding Specificity Other factors that affect LTM  Theory I: Rehearsal Recall from last week: Rehearsal in STM -> What is it? Maintenance rehearsal: ‘rote memorisation’ Repeat things over and over and over and over and… See this in the Serial Position Effect  Maintenance Rehearsal is involved in the Serial Position Effect Write down the words you just saw Primacy effect: Maintenance rehearsal -> LTM Recency effect: Still in STM (not LTM-relevant)  Theory I: Rehearsal Recall from last week: Rehearsal in STM -> What is it? Maintenance rehearsal: ‘rote memorisation’ Repeat things over and over and over and over and… See this in the Serial Position Effect Elaborative rehearsal: Give meaning to information that is being rehearsed Example: Tell a story using the information over and over and over…  Theory II: Levels of Processing Conceptually similar to Elaborative Rehearsal Core idea: How deep the meaning is at the initial time of information encoding determines/influences what goes into LTM deeper meaning = more likely to enter LTM Focuses on encoding -> how does memory encoding affect what stays in LTM?  Testing Levels of Processing Question: Does the level of processing of a word affect its recall from LTM? Basic structure of experiment: Participant is asked a Yes/No question about a word Sometimes the answer should be Yes Sometimes the answer should be No Delay Surprise recall test! Craik & Tulving, 1975  Testing Levels of Processing Condition 3: Meaning Condition 1: Structural (deep) (shallow) Condition 2: Phonetic Q: Does the word fit in Q: Is this word in capital (medium) the sentence? Sentence letters? Word = TROUT = “The bear _____ the Q: Does this word tree. Word = clawed Q: Is this word in capital rhyme with mug? Word letters? Word = kite = table Q: Does the word fit in the sentence? Sentence Q: Does this word = “The car _____ at the rhythm with bowl? light.” Word = winked Craik & Tulving, 1975 Word = hole  Testing Levels of Processing High Free recall = say what you Correct answer: No remember Correct answer: Yes Percent Correctly Recalled Low Structural Phonetic Meaning Level of Processing Craik & Tulving, 1975  Extending Levels of Processing Theory: Transfer-Appropriate Processing Extends Levels of Processing Theory Core idea: How information is retrieved from LTM also affects what can be retrieved Goes beyond encoding Addresses what we can remember  Testing Transfer-Appropriate Processing Similar procedure to Craik and Tulving (1975) for testing Levels of Processing Theory Crucial manipulation: Surprise memory test = cued recall Example: Test word = Key; Cued recall = “Did the word rhyme with ‘bee’?” Some test words encoded as rhymes and cued as rhymes Some test words encoded with meaning and cued as rhymes  Testing Transfer-Appropriate Processing High Recall did not match the encoding phase Recall matched the encoding phase Percent Correctly Recalled What gets into LTM is affected by how well acquisition/encoding and retrieval match! Low Rhyme Meaning Level of Processing  Theory III: Encoding Specificity Core idea: Conditions at the time of encoding affect retrieval of information from LTM Match encoding and retrieval conditions = better retrieval Broader than transfer-appropriate processing – considers any conditions at learning  Testing Encoding Specificity Acquisition (learning) phase: divers study a list of 36 words on dry land or underwater Testing phase: Tested either underwater or on dry land Congruent Learn + Test Incongruent Learn + Test conditions conditions Learn underwater + Test Learn underwater + Test on underwater land Learn on land + Test on land Learn on land + Test underwater Godden & Baddeley (1975)  Testing Encoding Specificity 16 13.5 14 Mean No. of Words Recalled 12 11.4 Learn Dry Learn Wet Congruent > 10 8.6 8.4 Incongruent 8 6 Evidence of 4 Encoding Specificity 2 effect 0 Recall Dry Recall Wet Godden & Baddeley (1975)  Theory IV: Encoding Specificity Core idea: Conditions at the time of encoding affect retrieval of information from LTM Match encoding and retrieval conditions = better retrieval State-dependent memory: Our physiological/psychological state at the time of learning affects later recall from LTM Match encoding and retrieval state conditions = better retrieval  Testing Encoding Specificity Methods: Session 1: 1) Induce fear or relaxation in participants 2) Participants hear words and recall episodic memories related to those words Session 2: 1) Induce fear or relaxation in participants (congruent/incongruent with session 1) 2) Participants recall the words from the first session Lang et al. (2001)  Testing Encoding Specificity Same state at encoding and retrieval = better performance Which bars on the graph tell us this? Lang et al. (2001) Recap of second part of lecture: Theories of how we get information into LTM Rehearsal, Levels of Processing/Transfer-Appropriate Processing, Encoding Specificity Goals: Understand/define each theory + it’s variations Describe basic pieces of evidence for theories  Other factors affecting LTM: Spacing effect AKA: Distributed Practice Effect Core idea: Information gets encoded in LTM better when it is reviewed at spaced-out intervals Opposite of cramming!  Testing the Spacing Effect Question: How do gaps in learning and testing affect memory recall? Basic methods: Teach participants facts at two points in time, then test their memory Varied length of Varied length of time time between study between second study sessions session and test Cepeda et al., (2008)  Testing the Spacing Effect Retention interval: Days between second study session and test (lines) Proportion Correct Facts 7 days 35 days 70 days 360 days Gap between First and Second Study Session  Other factors affecting LTM: Sleep Lots of interest in whether/how sleep affects memory Anecdotally, what is your experience with sleep and memory? Sleep affects Explicit/Declarative Memory AND Implicit Memory (Procedural) Which stage of memory is affected? Testing Sleep Effects on Declarative Memory Question: Does sleep affect encoding of information into (declarative) LTM? Group 1 happy – cat Surprise jump – tree test on fire - cup word Both groups pairs Group 2 Walker & Stickgold 2006  Testing Sleep Effects on Declarative Memory Good No sleep deprivation Performance on Memory Test (Group 1) Sleep deprivation (Group 2) Sleep deprivation < no sleep deprivation Losing sleep = worse encoding = worse Poor performance! Walker & Stickgold 2006  Testing Sleep Effects on Procedural Memory Question: Does sleep boost procedural memory? Learning Tested on Re-tested on phase: Finger finger finger sequencing sequencing sequencing task (10 AM) task (10 PM) task (10 AM) Walker et al. (2003)  Testing Sleep Effects on Procedural Memory Fast Sequence Speed Sleep > Awake Maybe sleep helps to recover or ‘reactivate’ memories Slow Walker et al. (2003) - adapted from Stickgold & Walker, 2006  Testing Sleep Effects on Procedural Memory Fast Sequence Speed Sleep > Awake Memory improvement not just a function of time of day/order Slow Walker et al. (2003) - adapted from Stickgold & Walker, 2006  LTM Loss: Amnesia Amnesia: Memory loss Retrograde Amnesia: Lose memories of past events Minutes to hours to days to years Example of Dr Wright’s friend No memory of the day  LTM Loss: Amnesia Amnesia: Memory loss Anterograde Amnesia: Lose the ability to form new long-term memories Classic case of HM  LTM Loss: Amnesia Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia: The case of Clive Wearing Recap of second half of lecture: Theories of how we get information into LTM Rehearsal, Levels of Processing/Transfer-Appropriate Processing, Encoding Specificity Understand/define each theory + it’s variations Describe basic pieces of evidence for theories Factors that affect LTM Spacing Effect Sleep (declarative, procedural effects) Memory loss/amnesia Next week: Mental Imagery