Infant-Directed Speech and Language Perception
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Questions and Answers

Which hypothesis suggests that there is no hemispheric specialization for language at birth?

  • Equipotentiality hypothesis (correct)
  • Plasticity hypothesis
  • Language criticality hypothesis
  • Invariance hypothesis

The critical period for language acquisition refers to a fixed timeframe within human development.

True (A)

What key behavior typically indicates the beginning of language development in infants?

Babbling

The __________ hypothesis states that infants have already developed left hemisphere specialization for language at birth.

<p>Invariance</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following stages of language development to their descriptions:

<p>Babbling = Production of repetitive consonant-vowel combinations Critical period = Window of time where language must be acquired Equipotentiality Hypothesis = No specialized functions in each hemisphere at birth Invariance Hypothesis = Left-hemisphere specialization is present at birth</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of gesture in language development?

<p>Gestures assist in conveying meaning along with verbal communication. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Development of the auditory system begins around 20 weeks gestation.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main hypotheses regarding brain specialization for language?

<p>Equipotentiality hypothesis and Invariance hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of language exposure did Genie have until age 13?

<p>No language exposure (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Genie's language acquisition included mastering full syntax and grammar.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used for the various stages of sound production in infants?

<p>Babbling</p> Signup and view all the answers

Early learners of ______ language tend to have better grammar than late learners.

<p>sign</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what age do infants typically begin to exhibit canonical-syllable babbling, such as 'da-da-da'?

<p>9 months (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Perceptual attunement in infants refers to their ability to focus only on general sounds.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What challenges are mentioned regarding the evidence for the critical period in language acquisition?

<p>Complex personal histories and other developmental delays</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following babbling stages with their descriptions:

<p>Quasi-resonant vocalisation = Whiny vocalisations, not fully resonant Fully-resonant vowel = Vowel sounds only (3-4 months) Marginal-syllable = Consonant and vowel sounds with slow transition (4-8 months) Canonical-syllable = Typical syllable sequences for a language (9 months)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes infant-directed speech (IDS)?

<p>Altered speech characteristics when talking to infants, such as higher pitch and clearer vowels. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Song et al. (2010) regarding infant-directed speech?

<p>The effects of vowel hyperarticulation on word recognition (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Everyone uses infant-directed speech regardless of cultural background.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one acoustic feature measured in studies of infant-directed speech?

<p>Pitch</p> Signup and view all the answers

Vowel hyperarticulation leads to poorer word recognition in children.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What two items were compared to examine children's attention in the study?

<p>cup and book</p> Signup and view all the answers

Infant-directed speech is characterized by __________ speech and longer pauses.

<p>slower</p> Signup and view all the answers

The three big questions about infant-directed speech include: What is infant-directed speech? Does it affect __________ acquisition?

<p>language</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following characteristics of infant-directed speech (IDS) with their descriptions:

<p>Higher F0 = Increased pitch when speaking to infants Hyperarticulation of vowels = Clarity in pronunciation of vowel sounds Tone hyperarticulation = Exaggeration of tonal variations in speech Slower speech = Pacing that allows infants to better grasp language</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the terms related to infant-directed speech with their descriptions:

<p>Hyperarticulation = Exaggeration of speech sounds IDS = Infant-directed speech Cultural differences = Variations in speech across different cultures Word recognition = Understanding spoken language</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does infant-directed speech affect language acquisition?

<p>It exaggerates sounds, helping infants differentiate between them. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Infant-directed speech includes identical speech patterns for every infant age.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to tone hyperarticulation as infants age?

<p>It decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a main finding regarding infant-directed speech (IDS) across cultures?

<p>Not all cultures speak to children the same way. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cantonese-speaking infants respond equally to infant-directed speech and adult-directed speech.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does IDS stand for?

<p>infant-directed speech</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the study by Schneidman & Goldin-Meadow, infants in the US experienced ___________ speech directed at them compared to Yucatec Mayan infants.

<p>more</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the researchers with their findings:

<p>Schneidman &amp; Goldin-Meadow = Differences in IDS across cultures Werker = Infant responses to IDS vs. ADS Hilton et al. = Vocalizations may transcend culture Mayan Group = Less IDS than the US</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes infant-directed song?

<p>Singing to infants in a particular way. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cultural differences in infants' responses to language do not exist.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Research suggests that infant-directed speech may have qualities and functions that __________ culture.

<p>transcend</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of infant-directed singing?

<p>Very rhythmic and predictable (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Infants do not look at the singer's eyes more on the beat of the rhythm.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What may singing provide infants in terms of social cues?

<p>Opportunities for social cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

Infant-directed singing helps infants __________ certain behaviors to the rhythm.

<p>time</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following age groups with their eye looking behavior:

<p>2 months = Younger infants look at the singer's eyes less on the beat 6 months = Older infants look at the singer's eyes more on the beat Younger infants = Look less at the singer's eyes Older infants = Look more at the singer's eyes</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do singers enhance social interaction through infant-directed singing?

<p>By modulating facial expressions with the rhythm (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Older infants have shown a higher probability of looking into a singer's eyes on rhythm compared to younger infants.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one implication of infant-directed singing according to the research?

<p>It provides infants with more social cues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which side of the mental imagery debate argues that perception and imagery share similar mechanisms?

<p>Depictive Side (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mental rotation experiments provide evidence for the Depictive Side of the mental imagery debate.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one key finding from mental scaling experiments?

<p>Evidence that we ‘zoom in’ on pictures in our mind.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the debate on perception and imagery, if they interact, they share similar __________.

<p>mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

In interference conditions, how do people perform when they have to both perceive and imagine something in the same modality?

<p>They perform worse. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of experiments with their main findings:

<p>Mental Scanning = We scan pictures in our mind Mental Rotation = We rotate pictures in our mind Mental Scaling = We zoom in on images in our mind Perception-Imagery Interaction = They can interfere with one another</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Propositional Side asserts that perception and imagery are fundamentally the same.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'visual scanning' refer to in the context of mental imagery?

<p>The process of mentally reviewing images or pictures in the mind.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary aim of the mental scanning experiments mentioned?

<p>To examine whether mental scan times align with visual scan times (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Longer mental scanning times are inconsistent with the Propositional Side.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What two categories of scans are involved in the mental scanning task?

<p>Close Scan and Far Scan</p> Signup and view all the answers

In mental scanning experiments, participants are asked to memorize the __________ before scanning.

<p>landmarks</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of scanning with its characteristic:

<p>Close Scan = Involves scanning objects that are closely nested or nearby Far Scan = Involves scanning more distant objects or landmarks</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the study suggest about the relationship between mental images and lists?

<p>They may involve similar scanning times. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The tasks in the mental scanning experiments do not include measuring the time taken to scan.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is being tested in the second mental scanning experiment regarding scanning times?

<p>Whether mental scan times map to visual scan times</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does falsification in science primarily attempt to demonstrate?

<p>That things are NOT the case (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Falsification proved that all swans are white based on the observation of only white swans.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define the propositionalist's aim in the context of depictive representation.

<p>To show that depictive representation as fundamental is NOT possible.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The conclusion drawn that 'All swans are white' is based on observing __________ swans.

<p>white</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following statements with their corresponding conclusions:

<p>All swans are white = There must be at least one swan that is not white Observe mostly white swans = There is a black swan Falsification approach = Attempt to show things are NOT the case Propositionalist view = Depictive representation is not fundamental</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is predicted by the Depictive code regarding the difficulty of identifying shapes?

<p>All shapes should be equally easy to identify. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The evidence against depictive representation is considered stronger than evidence supporting it.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key factor in the mental imagery debate concerning depictive versus propositional coding?

<p>The fundamental nature of how mental imagery is represented and coded.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What could skew the results during a mental imagery experiment according to the content?

<p>Participant expectations (B), Experimenter expectancy (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Participants are compelled to zoom in on images during mental imagery experiments.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between perceptual and imagery acuity mentioned in the content?

<p>Imagery is less than perceptual.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Research assistants need to test different sets of participants to assess how good perceptual vs _______ acuity is.

<p>imagery</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the terms with their definitions regarding the mental scaling debate:

<p>Demand characteristics = When participants change behavior based on what they think the researcher wants Experimenter expectancy = Researcher expectations that can influence study outcomes Acuity = The sharpness or clarity of perception or imagery Perceptual = Related to direct sensory experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, which statement reflects the expectations of researchers?

<p>Researchers may influence the outcomes of mental imagery experiments. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Smaller images are associated with faster response times than larger images.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Perception is generally considered to be _______ than imagery.

<p>greater</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main assertion of dual-coding theory?

<p>Memory improves when information is encoded in both pictures and language. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Involuntary auditory imagery can be described as songs or rhythms getting stuck in your head.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the concreteness of words have on memory retention?

<p>Concrete words are remembered better than abstract words.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Auditory imagery is particularly influenced by different __________ features.

<p>acoustic</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of mental imagery with their descriptions:

<p>Voluntary Auditory Imagery = Consciously imagining a song or rhythm Involuntary Auditory Imagery = Sounds or songs that replay in your mind without control</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one implication of the dual-coding theory in memory tasks?

<p>Both visual and verbal codes enhance recall of concrete items. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Voluntary auditory imagery occurs when individuals have songs or rhythms that play unintentionally in their mind.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the concreteness effect.

<p>Memory is better for concrete words than for abstract words.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The phenomenon where a song sticks in one's head is commonly known as an __________.

<p>earworm</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition showed the least deviation from the actual tempo when participants heard a song?

<p>Hear song (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following memory effects with their descriptions:

<p>Dual-coding Effect = Improved memory through the use of both visual and verbal codes Concreteness Effect = Better recall of tangible items compared to abstract concepts</p> Signup and view all the answers

Imagining a song combined with tapping produces a greater tempo deviation than just imagining the song.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the measured range of tempo deviation for participants who imagined the song only?

<p>26%</p> Signup and view all the answers

The actual tempo of the song was approximately __________ BPM.

<p>76</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following conditions to their corresponding tempo deviation percentages:

<p>Hear song = ~ 8% deviation Imagine song = ~ 26% deviation Imagine + tap = ~ 18% deviation</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the study by Jakubowski et al. (2016), which condition had the highest accuracy of tempo?

<p>Hear song (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Participants were asked to imagine the tempo of a metronome instead of the song in Condition 2.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used for unintended, involuntary auditory imagery that people experience, often referred to as catchy tunes?

<p>Earworms</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the theory of Encoding Specificity suggest about the relationship between encoding and retrieval of information?

<p>Retrieval is more effective when the encoding conditions are similar to retrieval conditions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the study conducted by Godden & Baddeley, which conditions represented congruent learn and test?

<p>Learning on dry land and testing on dry land. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of the experiments on encoding specificity in the study by Godden & Baddeley?

<p>The impact of different environments on memory retrieval. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about underwater learning based on the study's results?

<p>Learning underwater enhances retrieval when tested underwater. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the level of processing in relation to encoding specificity is accurate?

<p>The effectiveness of retrieval can depend on the depth of processing matched with the environment. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of amnesia involves losing the ability to form new long-term memories?

<p>Anterograde Amnesia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor is NOT mentioned as affecting long-term memory (LTM)?

<p>Nutrition (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory relates to how information is encoded into long-term memory?

<p>Levels of Processing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common symptom associated with retrograde amnesia?

<p>Inability to recall past events (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the effects of sleep on memory?

<p>Sleep has beneficial effects on both declarative and procedural memory. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main concept of the spacing effect in learning?

<p>Information is better retained when study sessions are spaced out over time. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does sleep affect memory according to the lecture?

<p>Sleep enhances both explicit and implicit forms of memory. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the key method used to test the spacing effect?

<p>Participants learned facts at different intervals and were tested on their recall. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the hypothesis regarding the impact of varied retention intervals on memory recall?

<p>Longer retention intervals can improve recall accuracy up to a point. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors influences the effectiveness of learning information in long-term memory?

<p>The timing and distribution of study sessions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of maintenance rehearsal in the Serial Position Effect?

<p>It facilitates the primacy effect by transferring information to long-term memory. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is most influential in determining the larger illusory truth effect according to the level of certainty?

<p>Some uncertainty. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that the process of encoding information can enhance later retrieval from long-term memory?

<p>Levels of Processing. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What might be a consequence of primarily engaging in maintenance rehearsal without deeper processing?

<p>Increased risk of forgetting information over time. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a method mentioned for transferring information into long-term memory?

<p>Contextual embedding. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key element of maintenance rehearsal?

<p>Repeating information multiple times (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does deeper meaning affect information retention in long-term memory?

<p>It leads to greater likelihood of information entering long-term memory. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of question did participants respond to in Craik & Tulving's 1975 experiment?

<p>Yes/No questions about words (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of elaborate rehearsal?

<p>Telling a story using the information (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition from the Levels of Processing theory focuses on structural encoding?

<p>Capital-letter condition (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What outcome did Craik & Tulving’s research primarily investigate?

<p>The relationship between processing depth and recall from long-term memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which question type corresponds to phonetic encoding?

<p>Does this word rhyme with another word? (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the sentence task in Craik & Tulving's experiment assess?

<p>The depth of semantic processing (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core idea of the theory of encoding specificity?

<p>Condition at the time of encoding can affect retrieval from long-term memory. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario would most likely lead to better retrieval performance according to encoding specificity?

<p>Recalling information in the same emotional state as when it was learned. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does state-dependent memory refer to?

<p>The impact of physiological or psychological state on memory retrieval. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In testing encoding specificity, what does inducing a fear or relaxation in participants aim to measure?

<p>The influence of emotional state on retrieval across sessions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the findings of Lang et al. (2001) regarding recall performance?

<p>Participants remember more words when states are congruent during encoding and retrieval. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the encoding specificity effect suggest about memory retrieval?

<p>Matching contexts during encoding and retrieval enhances recall. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does state-dependent memory relate to physiological and psychological conditions?

<p>Both physiological and psychological states play a role in memory performance. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of encoding specificity, what outcome is expected when participants are in a congruent state during both learning and recalling?

<p>They will retrieve a higher number of words accurately. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the encoding specificity principle suggest about memory retrieval?

<p>It suggests that the conditions present during encoding affect how well information can be retrieved later.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the Godden & Baddeley (1975) study, what were the two contrasting environments used for learning and testing?

<p>The study compared learning on dry land and underwater, testing participants in either environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do congruent conditions in the testing phase affect memory performance according to the study's findings?

<p>Congruent conditions lead to better memory retrieval compared to incongruent conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the learning environment play in accordance with the theory of transfer-appropriate processing?

<p>The learning environment can significantly influence how information is encoded and ultimately retrieved.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main purpose of the experiment conducted by Godden & Baddeley in 1975?

<p>The main purpose was to examine how different environmental contexts affect the retrieval of learned information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory is characterized by the ability to remember personal experiences with specific time and place?

<p>Episodic memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does semantic memory differ from episodic memory in terms of temporal dating?

<p>Semantic memory is not temporally dated, whereas episodic memory is tied to specific times and places.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain regions are primarily associated with semantic memory?

<p>Frontal and parietal regions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does procedural memory refer to?

<p>It refers to the memory of how to perform tasks or skills.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the Illusory Truth Effect.

<p>It is the phenomenon where repeated exposure to misleading information increases the likelihood of believing it is true.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between explicit and implicit memory?

<p>Explicit memory involves conscious recall, while implicit memory influences behavior without conscious awareness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does conditioning relate to implicit memory?

<p>Conditioning forms an association between two events, influencing responses without the need for conscious recall of the specific experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does interference play in episodic memory retrieval?

<p>Episodic memory is more susceptible to interference from similar episodes, which can make retrieval challenging.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Spacing Effect suggest about memory retention?

<p>The Spacing Effect suggests that information is encoded in long-term memory better when reviewed at spaced-out intervals rather than through cramming.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does sleep impact different types of memory?

<p>Sleep affects both explicit/declarative memory and implicit/procedural memory, enhancing the encoding of information into long-term memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the Levels of Processing theory in memory encoding?

<p>The Levels of Processing theory posits that deeper, more meaningful processing of information leads to better encoding and retrieval in long-term memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main types of Explicit/Declarative Memory?

<p>Semantic and Episodic memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe how the Encoding Specificity principle relates to memory recall.

<p>The Encoding Specificity principle states that memory recall is improved when the conditions during retrieval match those during encoding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Bahrick et al. (1975) suggest about the retention of faces and names over time?

<p>People can recognize faces and names for a very long time, up to 48 years later.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What basic method was used to test the effects of spacing on memory recall?

<p>Participants were taught facts at two different time points, and then their memory was tested after varying lengths of time between study sessions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Long-term Memory (LTM) capacity compare with Sensory Memory and Short-term Memory (STM)?

<p>LTM capacity is functionally infinite compared to limited capacity of Sensory Memory and STM.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the Central Executive play in Baddeley’s model of working memory?

<p>The Central Executive controls and allocates mental resources for attention and decision processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of long-term memory, what type of memory refers to skills and actions?

<p>Procedural memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between Semantic and Episodic memory?

<p>Semantic memory consists of general knowledge, while Episodic memory includes personal experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the capacity of working memory as described by Miller's theory?

<p>It is often described as having a capacity of 7 +/- 2 items.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does research suggest about free recall of people over time according to Bahrick et al. (1975)?

<p>Free recall of individuals gets worse over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is maintenance rehearsal and how does it relate to the Serial Position Effect?

<p>Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeatedly recalling information to keep it in short-term memory, which contributes to the primacy effect by transferring that information into long-term memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of the Illusory Truth Effect.

<p>The Illusory Truth Effect refers to the phenomenon where repeated exposure to a statement increases the likelihood that it will be perceived as true, even if it is false.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the differences between declarative and implicit long-term memory?

<p>Declarative long-term memory involves facts and events that we can consciously recall, while implicit long-term memory consists of skills and procedures that are performed without conscious awareness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the levels of processing theory explain the effectiveness of memory encoding?

<p>The levels of processing theory suggests that deeper, semantic encoding leads to better retention of information than shallow, surface-level encoding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does rehearsal play in transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory?

<p>Rehearsal serves as a mechanism to consolidate information from short-term to long-term memory through repetition and active processing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core idea of the Transfer-Appropriate Processing framework?

<p>The core idea is that how information is retrieved from long-term memory affects what can be retrieved.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does cued recall manipulate memory testing in the context of Transfer-Appropriate Processing?

<p>Cued recall uses prompts that match the encoding phase to assess memory retrieval more effectively.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the relationship between encoding and retrieval as suggested by the Levels of Processing Theory.

<p>The theory suggests that better match between encoding methods and retrieval conditions leads to more effective recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary finding regarding the performance of recall tests in relation to encoding phases?

<p>Recall performance is higher when the context of retrieval matches the encoding phase.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What types of cues were used in testing memory recall according to Craik and Tulving's research?

<p>Cues were used that either matched the word's sound (phonetic) or its meaning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do structural, phonetic, and meaning levels of processing differ in terms of recall success?

<p>Generally, processing information at the meaning level yields better recall success than structural or phonetic levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of memory research, what is meant by 'surprise memory test'?

<p>A surprise memory test is an unexpected assessment that measures how well information has been retained.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Craik and Tulving's findings imply about the importance of the retrieval process?

<p>Their findings imply that retrieval processes are critical in determining what information can be effectively recalled from long-term memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Infant-directed speech

A type of speech used by caregivers when talking to infants, characterized by exaggerated intonation, simplified vocabulary, and repetition.

Infant-directed song

Songs sung to infants that often use exaggerated intonation, repetitive patterns, and simple melodies.

Equipotentiality hypothesis

The idea that the brain's left hemisphere doesn't have a special role in language at birth.

Invariance hypothesis

The idea that the brain's left hemisphere is specialized for language from birth.

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Critical period for language acquisition

A specific time during development when a skill, such as language, must be acquired.

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Babbling

Early vocalizations in infants that are not actual words, but sound like speech.

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Brain Hemispheric Specialization in infants

The preference shown by infants for certain areas of the brain (left hemisphere) in processing language-related sounds.

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Language acquisition

The process through which individuals develop language skills.

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Genie's Language Development

Genie, isolated until age 13, acquired some meaning of words (semantics) but not full grammar (syntax).

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Late Language Learning

Children learning sign language or a second language early show better mastery than those who start later.

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Quasi-resonant vocalization (QRV)

Babies' early vocalizations; not fully resonant (whinny sounds)

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Fully-resonant vowel (FRV)

More speech-like vocalizations, only vowel sounds, typically around 3-4 months.

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Marginal syllables

Consonant and vowel sounds with a slow transition between them (around 4-8 months).

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Canonical Syllables

Developmentally typical syllable sequences of a language. (around 9mo).

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Perceptual attunement

The process where infants narrow their focus on the sounds of their native language.

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Infant-directed speech (IDS)

A type of speech used by adults when talking to infants, characterized by exaggerated vowels and intonation.

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Word recognition

The ability to identify and understand words.

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Hyperarticulation

Exaggerated pronunciation of vowels.

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Target object

The item infants are focused on.

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Distractor object

Another item presented to distract or divert attention.

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Hyperarticulation of vowels

More distinct pronunciation of vowels in IDS.

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Pitch variability in speech

Greater variation in the tone of voice when interacting with infants.

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Higher F0 in IDS

Higher fundamental frequency (F0) of vocal tone in IDS.

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Slower speech in IDS

Slower speech rate in IDS, with longer pauses between words.

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Cultural differences in IDS

Variations in IDS patterns depending on cultural background.

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Tone hyperarticulation (Cantonese)

More distinct pronunciation of tones in Cantonese IDS (compared to adult speech).

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Effect of IDS on language acquisition

Possible impact of infant-directed speech on the development of language skills.

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Infant-directed Singing

Singing to babies with exaggerated rhythms and predictable patterns. It often includes repetitive melodies and simple lyrics.

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Rhythmic Social Cues

Infants learn important social information through rhythms in infant-directed singing, like anticipating a smile or eye contact.

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Infant Eye Gaze on the Beat

Babies tend to look at the singer's eyes more often on the beat of the rhythmic music, suggesting they are picking up on social cues.

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Wide-Eyed Affect

Singers often exaggerate their facial expressions, like widening their eyes, on the beat to emphasize social cues.

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Social Cue Learning in Infants

Infant-directed singing provides a unique opportunity for babies to learn social cues like facial expressions and eye contact through rhythmic patterns.

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Rhythmic Importance in Infant-Directed Singing

The rhythm of infant-directed singing is crucial for transmitting social cues, more so than the rhythm of normal speech.

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Cultural Differences in Infant-Directed Singing

Different cultures may have variations in how they use rhythm in infant-directed singing.

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IDS and Culture

The study of how infant-directed speech (IDS) varies across different cultural groups. It looks at how caregivers speak to infants in different languages and cultures.

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Schneidman & Goldin-Meadow (2012)

This research compared IDS in English-speaking and Mayan-speaking children. It found that American parents spoke more to their children than Mayan parents, even though both groups used IDS.

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IDS: Universal Features?

The study of whether certain features of IDS are found across cultures. Research investigates whether these features have universal functions, regardless of language or culture.

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Werker (1994)

This study examined how English-speaking and Cantonese-speaking infants responded to IDS and ADS. The study found that infants from both groups preferred IDS to ADS, suggesting a universal preference for IDS.

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IDS: Overheard Speech?

The study of the amount of speech directed towards infants compared to general conversation in the environment. Research investigates whether caregivers speak more to infants in some cultures than others.

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Cross-cultural Infant-Directed Song

The study of whether infant-directed song (IDS) is used in different cultures and if its features are universal. It investigates if singing to babies is a common practice across cultures.

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Why Do We Sing To Infants?

Investigating the reasons why caregivers sing to infants. Potential factors include: bonding, language development, and emotional regulation.

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Mental Scan

The process of mentally 'moving' through an imagined scene, like examining an image in your mind.

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Far vs. Close Scan

In mental scanning, it takes longer to mentally traverse a larger distance in an image, just like it takes longer to visually scan a larger area.

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Propositional Theory

This theory suggests that mental images are represented by abstract propositions or verbal descriptions, not actual pictures.

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Depictive Theory

This theory proposes that mental images are like actual pictures, where we can 'scan' them mentally like we would a real image.

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Mental Scanning Experiment 1 Challenge

A challenge to the depictive theory, suggesting that longer mental scan times could be explained by scanning a verbal list of propositions, not a mental image.

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Mental Scanning Experiment 2

A study designed to test mental scan times between landmarks, supporting the depictive theory by showing that the time it takes to mentally scan matches the actual time it takes to visual scan.

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Kosslyn's Experiment

A series of experiments that examined mental scanning times, providing evidence for the depictive theory of mental imagery, showing mental scans are similar to real-world scans.

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Testing the Debate

The ongoing process of evaluating evidence and developing experiments to understand how mental images are represented in the brain.

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Mental Imagery Debate

The debate centers on whether mental imagery operates using depictive representations (like pictures) or propositional representations (like language).

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Depictive Representation

A mental representation that resembles the actual object or scene, like a visual picture in the mind.

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Propositional Representation

A mental representation that uses abstract symbols and rules, like a verbal description or sentence.

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Mental Rotation Experiment

A study where participants mentally rotate an object to match a target image, supporting the idea that we manipulate mental images.

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Mental Scaling Experiment

A study where participants 'zoom in' or 'zoom out' on a mental image, suggesting a picture-like representation.

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Perception-Imagery Interference

The phenomenon where performing a perceptual task (e.g., seeing a real image) and an imagery task (e.g., imagining a similar image) simultaneously hinders performance, suggesting shared mechanisms.

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Falsification in Science

The process of trying to prove a hypothesis wrong rather than right, providing stronger evidence for a theory.

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Demand Characteristics

When participants in an experiment act in a way they think the experimenter wants them to, potentially skewing the results.

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Experimenter Expectancy

The researcher's expectations influencing the outcome of an experiment, potentially leading to biased results.

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Mental Scaling Experiment Challenge

An experiment involving participants mentally zooming in on images to test the accuracy of mental imagery compared to perception. This experiment raised concerns about demand characteristics and experimenter expectancy.

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Imagery vs. Perception

A debate in cognitive psychology concerning the accuracy and nature of mental imagery compared to real-world perception. Some argue that mental imagery is just as accurate as perception, while others believe that it's a weaker representation.

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Intons-Peterson (1983)

A study that challenged the mental scaling experiment by investigating the impact of researcher expectations on the outcome. It showed that experimenter bias can influence results.

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Research Assistant's Expectations

In research, the expectations of research assistants (RAs) can influence the outcome of an experiment, particularly when dealing with subjective data, like mental imagery.

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Acuity

The sharpness and clarity of vision or mental imagery. In the context of the debate, it refers to how well participants can see details in both real-world stimuli and mental images.

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Perceptual vs. Imagery Acuity

A comparison of the sharpness and accuracy of real-world perception versus mental imagery. Research questions whether mental imagery is as accurate as perception, particularly in terms of detail.

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Depictive Code

A theory of mental representation that suggests we store mental images directly, like photographs, in our minds.

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Propositional Code

A theory of mental representation that proposes we store mental images as a set of descriptions or propositions about the image.

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Falsification Objection to Depictive Code

The argument that depictive code is not a fundamental way of storing mental images because it cannot be falsified. Finding one counterexample could disprove the whole theory.

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Mental Imagery Task

An experiment designed to test how people mentally represent images. Participants are often asked to manipulate mental images in specific ways.

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Parallelogram Test

A common test in mental imagery research that assesses how people mentally represent shapes. A parallelogram is harder to visualize because it doesn't fit into our usual linguistic categories.

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Depictive vs. Propositional Debate

An ongoing discussion in cognitive science about whether depictive or propositional code is the primary way we store mental images. There is still no definitive answer.

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Mental Imagery & Cognitive Abilities

The potential influence of our mental imagery on other cognitive abilities, such as memory, attention, and problem-solving.

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Auditory Imagery

The ability to create and manipulate sounds in your mind, like hearing a song without it actually playing.

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Tempo Accuracy

How closely your imagined tempo matches the actual tempo of a song.

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Tapping and Tempo Imagery

Tapping along with a rhythm helps improve the accuracy of your imagined tempo.

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Involuntary Auditory Imagery

When a song or melody keeps playing in your head, even after it's stopped.

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Earworm

A catchy tune that repeatedly plays in your head without you wanting it to.

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Mental Scanning

The process of mentally exploring an image in your mind, like moving your gaze across a picture.

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Dual Coding Theory

This theory suggests that we can store information in two ways: visually (as pictures) and verbally (as words). This dual coding leads to better memory.

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Concreteness Effect

We remember concrete words (like "tree" or "book") better than abstract words (like "hope" or "quest"). This is because concrete words are easier to visualize.

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How Auditory Imagery is Affected

The way we imagine sounds can be influenced by different acoustic features, like pitch and loudness. Research shows this is how it works.

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Depictive Theory of Imagery

This theory says that mental images are like real pictures in your mind. You can mentally 'scan' them just like you would a real image.

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Propositional Theory of Imagery

This theory says that mental images are not like real pictures but are represented by words or descriptions. You would just be scanning your mental description, not an image.

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Illusory Truth Effect

The tendency to believe a statement is true simply because it has been repeated, even if it's false. Repeated exposure makes it more likely to be accepted.

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Maintenance Rehearsal

A form of rehearsal involved in short-term memory where information is repeated over and over to keep it active. Think of it like rote memorization.

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Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle. This occurs because of both rehearsal and the recency effect.

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Primacy Effect

The tendency to remember the first items in a list better than the words in the middle. This is because the first items are rehearsed and have time to enter long-term memory.

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Recency Effect

The tendency to remember the last items in a list better than the words in the middle. This is because those words are still in your short-term memory.

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Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information with existing knowledge or creating meaning. Think of storytelling.

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Levels of Processing

How deeply we think about information during encoding influences how well we remember it.

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Structural Processing

Shallow processing focusing on the physical features of information, like capital letters or word shape.

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Phonetic Processing

Medium processing focusing on the sound of information, like rhyming or rhythm.

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Meaning Processing

Deep processing focusing on the meaning of information, relating it to existing knowledge or understanding.

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Craik & Tulving (1975)

Experiment showing that deeper levels of processing lead to better memory recall. Different question types lead to different recall rates.

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Levels of Processing Effect

The outcome of Craik & Tulving's experiment, demonstrating how deeply processing information influences its recall.

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Encoding Specificity

The idea that how you learn something (the encoding conditions) affects how well you remember it later. This is related to retrieval cues.

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Godden & Baddeley Experiment

A classic experiment demonstrating encoding specificity: divers learned word lists underwater or on land. They remembered the lists better when the test conditions matched the learning conditions.

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Congruent vs. Incongruent Conditions

When the encoding and retrieval conditions are similar (Congruent), memory is better. When they are different (Incongruent), memory is worse.

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Context-Dependent Memory

This is a type of encoding specificity. It means your memory is better when you are in the same environment or situation as when you learned something.

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Retrieval Cues

Any type of information or clue that helps us remember something. These are often related to the environment or situation where the memory was stored.

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State-Dependent Memory

Our physiological or psychological state at the time of learning affects how well we can recall that information later.

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Congruent Conditions

When the conditions at the time of encoding (learning) are the same as the conditions at the time of retrieval (remembering).

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Incongruent Conditions

When the conditions at the time of encoding (learning) are different from the conditions at the time of retrieval (remembering).

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Encoding Specificity Effect

The improved performance of memory retrieval when the conditions at retrieval match the conditions at encoding.

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Godden & Baddeley (1975)

A study that demonstrated the encoding specificity effect by testing participants' recall of words learned underwater or on land.

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Lang et al. (2001)

A study that tested encoding specificity by inducing fear or relaxation in participants and measuring their recall of words while in a congruent or incongruent state.

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How do these studies support the encoding specificity effect?

By manipulating conditions during encoding (learning) and retrieval (remembering) and observing the impact on memory performance.

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Procedural Memory & Sleep

Sleep improves procedural memory, not just time of day. Studies show a faster sequence speed for tasks learned before sleep compared to staying awake.

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Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories for past events, ranging from minutes to years. Example: Someone might not remember the day before due to an accident.

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Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories. Famous case: H.M., couldn't form new memories but retained old ones.

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Spacing Effect

Learning material in spaced intervals (like studying in chunks) is more effective than cramming it all at once.

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Sleep and Memory

Sleep plays a crucial role in consolidating memories, affecting both explicit (declarative) and implicit (procedural) memory.

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Transfer-Appropriate Processing

Memory retrieval is better when the conditions of retrieval match the conditions of encoding.

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Long-Term Memory (LTM)

A memory system responsible for storing information for extended periods, often viewed as having a near-infinite capacity and duration.

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Explicit/Declarative Memory

Memory that involves conscious awareness and retrieval of facts, events, and concepts. It can be further divided into semantic and episodic memory.

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Semantic Memory

A type of explicit memory that stores general knowledge about the world, concepts, facts, and language.

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Episodic Memory

A type of explicit memory that stores personal experiences, events, and specific moments in time. It's essentially a mental diary of your life.

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Implicit Memory

Memory that influences behavior without conscious awareness or retrieval. It's often revealed through performance or actions.

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Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory that stores information about how to perform skills and procedures.

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Levels of Processing Theory

Suggests that the deeper you process information, the better you will remember it.

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Cued Recall

A memory test where you are given a cue or hint to help you remember the information.

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Distributed Practice

Another term for the spacing effect. This highlights the importance of spreading out study sessions to improve learning outcomes.

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Conditioned Responses

Learned associations between stimuli and responses. Even when the original experience is forgotten, the conditioned response can remain.

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Double Dissociation

Evidence showing that two mental processes are independent. Damage to one area of the brain can impair one process but not the other.

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The Illusory Truth Effect

The more times you hear something, the more likely you are to believe it's true, even if it's actually false.

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Study Notes

Infant-Directed Speech and Song

  • Infant-directed speech (IDS) refers to the way adults communicate with infants. 
  • It involves specific speech modifications, such as hyperarticulation (greater clarity) of vowels, variation in pitch, and slower speech with longer pauses. 
  • IDS is used across many cultures.
  • Important questions about IDS include: What is IDS? How does IDS affect language acquisition? Do all cultures use IDS?

Methods for Studying Language/Speech Perception in Infants

  • Looking-time preference procedure: Infants look in a specific direction longer in response to a particular sound or stimulus. If they look longer in one direction, it means they prefer that sound.
  • Head-turn procedure: Infants turn their heads when they detect a change in a sound or stimulus. This shows that the infant detected the change.
  • Habituation procedure: Infants show decreased interest to repetitive auditory stimuli. Increased attention to new stimuli suggests they detect a change. 

Infant-Directed Song

  •  Adults often sing to infants (infant-directed song or IDSong). 
  •  Adults often sing to infants in a particular way, similar to language adjustments.
  •  IDSong likely influences infant language acquisition.
  •  Cultural variations in IDSong exist.

Brain Development for Language

  • Auditory system develops around 20 weeks of gestation.
  • Two hypotheses about brain development and language: . Equipotentiality hypothesis: No hemispheric specialization for language at birth; left hemisphere specialization comes later. . Invariance hypothesis: Hemispheric specialization for language at birth with comparable left-hemisphere organization to adults.
  • Evidence for invariance hypothesis includes studies demonstrating left hemispheric activity when infants hear speech and links between aphasia and left-hemisphere damage.

Critical Periods for Language Acquisition

  • Critical period: A time window during development where a specific ability must be acquired. 
  • Input from the environment and biology are essential for acquisition.
  • Evidence supporting critical periods includes case studies like Genie (limited language acquisition despite exposure as child).
  • Cross-cultural studies on sign language learning may indirectly support the existence of critical periods. 

Babbling

  • Babbling involves the production of sounds from phoneme spanning human languages.
  • The developmental stages of babbling include quasi-resonant vocalizations (QRV), fully-resonant vowels(FRV), marginal-syllable babbling and canonical-syllable babbling.
  •  Perceptual attunement is crucial; infants fine-tune to language-specific sounds, which impacts comprehension over the first year of life.

Gesture as a Pre-cursor to Language

  •  Language development builds from non-symbolic gestures. 
  •  Pre-linguistic infants communicate through gestures like pointing, eye gaze.
  •  Iconic gestures map directly to their referent (meaning, object).
  •  Gestures and language combine in development, for example, pointing at a dog and saying “dog.”

Language Comprehension in Infants

  • Development is rapid, with many words acquired around age 2.
  • A "noun explosion" is observed where nouns are learned rapidly around age two.

Methods for Studying Language Comprehension in Infants

  • Specific behavioral methods are needed to study language comprehension in infants. 

Infant-Directed Speech: What Is It and Why Do We Do It?

  • Several hypotheses attempt to explain the presence and function of infant-directed speech and song. 
  • Questions remain on whether cultural differences affect how we communicate with infants.

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Related Documents

Week 10: Mental Imagery PSYC 221 Fall 2024 PDF
Infant-Directed Speech and Song (PSYC 211, Fall 2024) PDF
Long-Term Memory Lecture Notes PSYC 221 Fall 2024 PDF

Description

This quiz explores infant-directed speech (IDS) and its implications for language acquisition. It also examines various methods for studying language and speech perception in infants. Topics covered include cultural variations in IDS and research methodologies like looking-time and head-turn procedures.

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