Memory: Models and Long-Term Memory PDF

Memory: Models and Long-Term Memory Ms. Javeria Nasir Long-term memory is intended for storage of information over a long period of time. It can store a seemingly unlimited amount of information almost indefinitely. Whereas STM focuses on the present, LTM helps to forge links between our past and...

Memory: Models and Long-Term Memory Ms. Javeria Nasir Long-term memory is intended for storage of information over a long period of time. It can store a seemingly unlimited amount of information almost indefinitely. Whereas STM focuses on the present, LTM helps to forge links between our past and present experiences, memories or information. LTM holds a vast quantity of information which can be stored for long periods of time. The information kept here is diverse and wide-ranging and includes: - all of our personal memories - our general knowledge - our beliefs about the world LTM is not a passive store of information, but a dynamic system which constantly revises and modifies stored knowledge in the light of new information.  The frontal cortex stores many permanent memories and is involved in deep processing The hippocampus has been found to be an important structure for memory. In recording studies of rat hippocampal cells, Cognitive researchers have found that cells of the hippocampus that were activated during initial learning are reactivated during subsequent periods of sleep. It is as if they are replaying the initial learning episode to achieve consolidation into long-term storage (Scaggs & McNaughton, Neuroscie nce and 1996; Wilson & McNaughton, 1994). This effect has also been observed in humans. After learning routes within a virtual town, participants slept. LTM Increased hippocampal activity was seen during sleep after the person had learned the spatial information. In the people with the most hippocampal activation, there was also an improvement in performance when they needed to recall the routes (Peigneux et al., 2004). Memory for distant events is affected by: Degree of initial How often it was encoding rehearsed over time Types of LTM Procedural memory Part of the long-term memory is responsible for knowing how to do things, i.e. memory of motor skills. It does not involve conscious (i.e. it’s unconscious - automatic) thought and is not declarative. For example, procedural memory would involve knowledge of how to ride a bicycle. Semantic memory Part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information about the world. It involves conscious thought and is declarative. This includes knowledge about the meaning of words, as well as general knowledge. For example, London is the capital of England. Episodic memory Part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information about events (i.e. episodes) that we have experienced in our lives. It involves conscious thought and is declarative. An example would be a memory of our 1st day at school. Autobiographical Memories Autobiographical memory refers to memory of an individual’s history. Autobiographical memory is constructive. One does not remember exactly what has happened. Rather, one remembers one’s construction or reconstruction of what happened. Recent work has illustrated the importance of self- esteem in the formation and recall of autobiographical memory. People with positive self- esteem remember more positive events, whereas people with negative self esteem remember negative events. An often-studied form of vivid memory is the flashbulb memory—a memory of an event so powerful that the person remembers the event as vividly as if it were indelibly preserved on film (Brown & Kulik, 1977). A memory is most likely to become a flashbulb memory under these circumstances: The memory trace is important to the individual It has an emotional effect on the individual. Examples: recall an event where you received a news that was dramatic, unexpected, and shocking.  Tasks for Measuring Memory Recall vs. Recognition Recall means to produce any information; fact, Recognition means to word, or item from identify an item that you memory have observed previously. Research suggests that Recognition memory is usually much better than recall. Recall tasks generally elicits deeper levels of information processing than anticipation of recognition tasks. Informing participants of the type of future test they will take can influence the amount of learning that occurs. Receptive means “responsive to a stimulus.” In a recognition-memory task, you respond to stimuli presented to you and decide whether you have seen them before or not. It requires Receptive knowledge Recall-memory tasks, in which you have to produce an answer, require expressive knowledge  Implicit vs. Explicit Memory The difference between Implicit and explicit memory depends on the type of recall required. Explicit memory require conscious recall. We need to make an effort to remember Implicit memory does not require conscious awareness. We don’t have to focus when we are accessing information from memory. E.g: Procedural tasks; riding a bike etc  Method of Loci Peg Word System Mnemonic Key Word System Devices Organizational Schemes Acrostics Mnemonic devices are techniques a person can use to help them improve their ability to remember something. In other words, it's a memory technique to help your brain better encode and recall important information. Essentially, such devices add meaning to otherwise meaningless or arbitrary lists of items Method Of Loci In the method of loci, we visualize walking around an area with distinctive, well-known landmarks and link the various landmarks to specific items to be remembered. This method uses visualization to organize and recall information. This method works on the assumption that it is easier for us to remember locations that are familiar to use. If we relate objects to these, it becomes easy for us to memorize them. A thought experiment: Think of a place you know well (e.g., your house), and mentally go through it. Associate each object with a location in the place. When the list (objects) need to be recalled simply think of the house and all the locations that you have thought of.  Pegword System In the pegword system, associate each word with a word on a previously memorized list and form an interactive image between the two words. This method consists of memorizing a rhyme or jingle that has mental “pegs” or “markers” on which you “hang” the items to be remembered. Associate new words or concepts with a list of words you already know. Very effective for a list of information to be remembered in a particular sequence. (E.g., shopping items, errands, historical events). Key Word System In using the keyword system, create an interactive image that links the sound and meaning of a foreign word with the sound and meaning of a familiar word. Suppose that you needed to learn that the French word for butter is beurre. First, you would note that beurre sounds something like “bear.” Next, you would associate the keyword bear with butter in an image or sentence. For instance, you might visualize a bear eating a stick of butter. Later, bear would provide a retrieval cue for beurre. Mnemonic Linking System (Stories or Images) This mnemonic linking method (also called “chaining”) consists of developing a story or image that connects together pieces of information you need to remember. Each item leads you to recall the next item. For example, imagine that you need to remember to bring the following things with you to school in the morning: homework papers, glasses, gym shoes, wallet, lunch money, and keys. Using the linking system, you can make up a sentence or short story to help you remember. An example: Jack’s homework papers put on their glasses and gym shoes and ran over to his wallet where his hungry keys were eating his lunch money. If you add interesting personal details or humor, it often makes the information easier to remember.  Categorical Clustering/Organizational Schemes In categorical clustering, organize a list of items into a set of categories. This is usually done on a semantic level  Acrostics A sentence where the first letter of every word provides cues for other important terms.  Acronym: Devise a word in which each of its letters stands for a certain other word or concept. e.g: USA, IPP Acronyms Acrostic: Bring Old Dizzy Mary A Sandwich Acronym: BODMAS Mechanisms of Forgetting Primacy Effect Information that is received first or initially stays longer Comes into effect when information stays in memory for longer because it was rehearsed. Recency Effect Information received last or towards the end stays longer in memory Comes into effect when earlier information was bumped out or removed by new incoming information.  Decay theory asserts that information is forgotten because of the gradual disappearance, rather than displacement, of the memory trace. Thus, decay theory views the original piece of the original piece of information as gradually disappearing unless something is done to keep it intact. Interference Theory refers to the view that forgetting occurs because recall of certain words interferes with recall of other words. Retroactive Proactive interferenc interferenc e (or e (or retroactive proactive inhibition) inhibition) occurs when occurs when newly material that acquired was learned knowledge in the past impedes the impedes the recall of learning of older new material material.  Sensory STM LTM Memory Transfers to STM Transfers to LTM Forgetting when you pay through occurs due to attention to it. rehearsal. decay and interference. Forgetting Forgetting occurs due to occurs due to inattention or interference or ignoring. no rehearsal. Scenario of forgetting…. You are driving When you saw the street, the Sensory Register down the street advertisement, the models, the Forgotten if you did not pay enough picture of the food, the and see many information was going into your attention to, or ignored, the billboards billboards. One of them is When you decided to ignore all Short-Term Store about a new other billboards and focus on Forgotten due to interference from deal at a Fast the Fast Food one, the (e.g., other billboards, act of driving information is now going into itself). Or no rehearsal (info from Food billboard ad is not actively Restaurant rehearsed/repeated) When you decided to remember the details, read the Long-Term Store You want to let billboard a few items, and plan everyone at to recall it later, the information Forgotten over time or due to home know is going into interference or decay  Models of Memory Self-Reference Level of Processing Effect Levels of Processing Craik and lockhart  Craik and Lockhart's (1972) concept of their levels of processing theory (LOP) is based on an individual's attention and perceptual processes taking place when absorbing data and that the more deeply an individual processes information, the better they will remember it.  LOP states that there’s various levels of processing and that individuals analyze information by processing them at different levels; starting from Shallow and then moving on to deeper levels. In which deeper analysis gives better memory. Type of analyses depends on: Nature of Stimuli Time available for processing  Structural Processing: Thinking about the physical appearance of words to be learnt Phonetic Processing: Thinking about the sound of words to be learnt. Semantic Processing: Thinking about the meaning of the words to be learnt This does not mean that information is processed at shallow level first. It can be processed directly at a deeper level. Shallow Deep Processing Processing Involves superficial properties of a Related to an items meaning or its stimulus. function. When information is subjected to Greater degree of semantic or sensory or feature analyses cognitive analysis Looking at the physical or overt May trigger past experiences, characteristics of information associations Example: Proofreading Example: Reading for comprehension Craik and Lockhart (1972) believed that individuals performed two separate rehearsal strategies;  Maintenance rehearsal is the process which is said to store verbal information into STM and is described as information that is being continually repeated.  Elaborative rehearsal is a deeper semantic process that relates new information with existing information within LTM.  Information Structural Model Processing Suggest operations applied to Boxes in the head theory information Separate structures in the mind Shallow and deep processing Waugh & Norman; Atkinson & Craik & Lockhart Shiffrin Criticized for being too common Criticized for being old and out- sense, difficult to test, and circular dated models reasoning  Information Structural Models Processing Differences in Rehearsal is the Maintaining conceptualiza means by which information is information at one level of analysis tion of transferred from STM to LTM Or elaborating information by processing it to Rehearsal deeper level Self-Reference Effect Rogers, Kuiper & Kirker The tendency to remember words or information better because it is relevant to you You are engaging in a powerful self-schema (Me, Myself, I) Deeply invested in ourselves and so we have a rich and elaborate network available for storing self-information Episodic and Semantic Memory Tulving