Study Guide for Anatomy and Physiology Chapters 1-4 PDF

**Study Guide for Anatomy and Physiology Chapters 1-4** ------------------------------------------------------- ### **1. Gross vs. Microscopic Anatomy** - **Gross Anatomy**: The study of structures visible to the naked eye (e.g., organs, systems). - **Microscopic Anatomy**: The study of s...

**Study Guide for Anatomy and Physiology Chapters 1-4** ------------------------------------------------------- ### **1. Gross vs. Microscopic Anatomy** - **Gross Anatomy**: The study of structures visible to the naked eye (e.g., organs, systems). - **Microscopic Anatomy**: The study of structures at the cellular level (e.g., tissues, cells). ### **2. Physiology** - **Definition**: The study of the functions of living organisms and their parts. ### **3. Homeostasis** - **Homeostasis**: The maintenance of a stable internal environment. - **Feedback Mechanisms**: - **Negative Feedback**: Mechanisms that counteract changes to maintain stability (e.g., regulation of body temperature). - **Positive Feedback**: Mechanisms that amplify changes (e.g., blood clotting). ### **4. Organizational Levels** - **Cell**: The basic unit of life. - **Tissue**: A group of similar cells performing a specific function. - **Organ**: A structure made up of different tissues working together. - **System**: A collection of organs that work together for a common purpose. ### **5. Metabolism** - **Anabolism**: The building up of molecules (synthesis). - **Catabolism**: The breaking down of molecules (degradation). ### **6. Requirements for Human Life** - **Four Basic Requirements**: - Temperature (T) - Atmospheric Pressure (ATM) - Nutrients - Oxygen (O2) ### **7. Anatomical Position** - **Anatomical Position**: The body is standing upright, facing forward, with arms at the sides and palms facing forward. ### **8. Directional Terms** - **Anterior**: Toward the front. - **Posterior**: Toward the back. - **Superior**: Above or higher than. - **Inferior**: Below or lower than. ### **9. Planes of the Body** - **Sagittal Plane**: Divides the body into left and right sections. - **Transverse Plane**: Divides the body into superior and inferior sections. - **Frontal Plane**: Divides the body into anterior and posterior sections. ### **10. Chemistry Basics** - **Atomic Weight/Number**: - **Atomic Number**: Number of protons in an atom. - **Atomic Weight**: The average weight of an element\'s isotopes. - **Isotopes**: Variants of an element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. - **Ionic Bonds**: Chemical bonds formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms. - **Covalent Bonds**: Bonds formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms. ### **11. Macromolecules** - **Triglyceride (TAG)**: A type of lipid made up of glycerol and three fatty acids. - **Saturated Fatty Acids**: Fatty acids with no double bonds between carbon atoms. - **Unsaturated Fatty Acids**: Fatty acids with one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. ### **12. Cell Membrane** - **Hydrophilic**: Water-attracting (\"water-loving\") regions. - **Hydrophobic**: Water-repelling (\"water-fearing\") regions. - **Amphipathic**: Molecules that have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. ### **13. Transport Mechanisms** - **Passive Transport**: Movement of substances down their concentration gradient without energy use. - **Active Transport**: Movement of substances against their concentration gradient using energy. - **Endocytosis**: The process of taking in materials by engulfing them. - **Exocytosis**: The process of expelling materials from the cell. ### **14. DNA and RNA** - **DNA Replication**: - **Helicase**: Unwinds the DNA double helix. - **Polymerase**: Synthesizes new strands of DNA. - **RNA**: Plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. - **Transcription**: The process of synthesizing mRNA from DNA. - **Translation**: The process of synthesizing proteins from mRNA. ### **15. Cell Cycle** - **Phases of Mitosis**: - **Prophase**: Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes. - **Metaphase**: Chromosomes align in the center of the cell. - **Anaphase**: Chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell. - **Telophase**: The nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes. ### **16. Tissue Types** - **Four Primary Types of Tissue**: - **Epithelial Tissue**: Covers body surfaces and lines cavities. - **Connective Tissue**: Supports and binds other tissues (includes bone, blood, adipose tissue). - **Muscle Tissue**: Responsible for movement (includes skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle). - **Nervous Tissue**: Transmits impulses for communication (includes neurons and neuroglia). ### **17. Connective Tissue** - **Matrix**: The extracellular material that provides structural support. - **Fibers**: Types include collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers. - **Cell Types**: - **Fibroblasts**: Produce fibers and ground substance. - **Adipocytes**: Store fat. - **Chondrocytes**: Cells found in cartilage. ### **18. Types of Connective Tissue** - **Loose Connective Tissue**: Includes areolar and adipose tissue. - **Dense Connective Tissue**: Includes regular and irregular types. - **Supportive Connective Tissue**: Includes cartilage (hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic) and bone (cancellous and compact). - **Fluid Connective Tissue**: Includes blood and lymph. ### **19. Tissue Injury** - **Necrosis**: Uncontrolled cell death due to injury or disease. - **Apoptosis**: Programmed cell death. - **Vasodilation**: The widening of blood vessels, often in response to injury. ### **20. Wound Healing** - **Primary Union**: Direct healing of a wound with minimal tissue loss. - **Secondary Union**: Healing of a wound with significant tissue loss, involving granulation tissue.