PS-212-Pub-AdModule PDF

Chapter I The Nature and Scope of Public Administration OVERVIEW Public Administration is a newly emerged discipline compare to other Social Science‘s discipline. Public Administration has gained immense importance since the emergence of Administrative state. In Ancient Greek, Roman and Indian political system gave more importance to the concept of Administration. Kautilys‘s ―Arthasathra‖ contributed large scale in the administrative system; it deals every aspect of the state and its relation to subjects. In simple sense Public Administration is state mechanism. In every Political System administration have significant role. In this unit an effort has been made to bring the concept of administration, public administration in particular, closer to you. This understanding will take you through the entire course of Public Administration. In what follows, we will examine the meaning, nature and scope of public administration. OBJECTIVES At the end of this chapter learners should be able to: 1. Discuss the concept of public administration 2. Deliberate the importance of public administration 3. Expound the concept of bureaucracy 4. Explain the implications government and politics to public administration 1|Page SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department LESSON 1 The Meaning and Importance of Public Adminstration INTRODUCTION Administration as an activity is as old as society itself. But as an area of study it originated, with the publication of Wilson‘s essay on study of Administration in 1887. As a process, administration occurs in both public and private organisations. It occurs in such diverse institution as settings as a business firm, labour unions, religious or charitable organisations, educational institutions, etc. Its nature is affected by the sphere with which it is concerned. Administration is commonly divided into two types, Public and Private Administration. As an aspect of government activity it has existed since the emergence of political system(s). While public administration relates to the activities carried out by government, private administration refers to the management of private business enterprises. It is important to understand the functioning of administration for on this lies the understanding of the government. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of the lesson students should be able to: 1. Define Public Administration 2. Describe the nature of Public Administration 3. Explain the scope of Public Administration 4. Compare and contrast Private from Public Administration 2|Page SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department LESSON OUTLINE I. What is Administration? The word ‗administer‘ is derived from the Latin word administere, which means to care for or to look after people, to manage affairs. Administration may be defined as ―group activity which involves cooperation and coordination for the purpose of achieving desired goals or objectives‖. Broadly speaking, the term administration appears to bear at least four different meanings or different senses depending upon the context in which it is used: (1) As a Discipline: The name of a branch of learning or intellectual discipline as taught and studied in colleges and universities. (2) As a Vocation: Type of work/trade or profession/occupation, especially one that involves knowledge and training in a branch of advance learning. (3) As a Process: The sum total of activities undertaken to implement Public Policy or policies to produce some services or goods. (4) As a Synonym for 'word' Executive or Government: Such other body of persons in supreme charge of affairs, for example, Manmohan Singh Administration, Bush Administration, etc. Below are definitions by a few famous writers. E.N. Gladden ―Administration is a long and slightly pompous word, but it has a humble meaning, for it means to care for or look after people, to manage affairs…. is determined action taken in pursuit of conscious purpose‖. Brooks Adams 3|Page SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department ―Administration is the capacity of coordinating many, and often conflicting, social energies in a single organism, so adroitly that they shall operate as a unity. Felix A. Nigro ―Administration is the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose‖. J.M. Pfiffner and R. Presthus ―Administration is the organisation and direction of human and material resources to achieve desired ends‖. L.D. White ―The art of administration is the direction, co-ordination and control of many persons to achieve some purpose or objective‖. Luther Gullick ―Administration has to do with getting things done, with the accomplishment of defined objectives‖. F.M. Marx ―Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of resources, aimed at making those things happen which one wants to happen and foretelling everything to the country‖. Herbert Simon, D.W. Smithburg and V.A. Thompson ―In its broadest sense, the administration can be defined as the activities of group cooperating to accomplish common goals.‖ A brief analysis of the definitions listed above reveals that administration comprises two essentials, namely (1) cooperative effort, and (2) pursuit of common objectives. One does not find any administration if there is only a common purpose without a collective effort or vice-versa. Administration is also called a ‗technology of social relationships‘. Thus, 4|Page SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department administration is a process common to all group effort, public or private, civil or military, large scale or small scale. It is process at work in a department store, a bank, a university, a high school, a railroad, a hospital, a hotel or a local government. ADMINISTRATION, ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT Before we discuss about the meaning, definition, nature, scope and importance of public administration we will try to know what is administration, organisation and management. As these terms are often used interchangeably and synonymously, it is pertinent to know the differences and distinctions between these three terms. According to William Schulze Administration is the force, which lays down the object for which an organisation and its management are to strive and the broad policies under which they are to operate. An Organization is a combination of the necessary human beings, materials, tools, equipment and working space, appurtenances brought together in systematic and effective co-relation to accomplish some desired object. Management is that which leads guides and directs an organisation for the accomplishment of pre-determined object. To put the above in simple terms, administration sets the goal, management strives to attain it and organisation is the machine of the management for the attainment of the ends determined by the administration. Some scholars have a different view about the administration and management. According to Peter Drucker management is associated with the business activity, which has to show economic performance, whereas administration is associated with the non-business activities like activities of the Government. The other view is that administration is associated with performing routine things in known settings in accordance with certain procedures, rules, and regulations. The Management is associated with performing functions like risk taking, dynamic, creative and innovative functions. Some scholars of Public Administration are closely associated with the first view that is, administration is a determinative function. Management, on other hand is an executive function that is primarily concerned with carrying out the broad 5|Page SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department policies laid down by the administration. Organisation is the machinery through which coordination is established between administration and management. DEFINING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION L.D. White observes that although public administration varies in form and objects, and although the administration of public and private affairs differs at many points, there is an underlying similarity, if not identity. As an integral aspect of such generic concept, public administration could be related to that type of administration, which operates within a specific ecological setting. It is a means to carry out the policy decisions made by political executive. To be seen along with it is the ‗Public‘ aspect of Public administration, which attributes a special character and focus to it. So, public administration is government administration, government in action, or a socio- economic and politico-administrative confluence, the focus being especially on public bureaucracy. Encyclopaedia Britannica defines public administration as ‗the application of a policy of a state through its government.‘ Public Administration, therefore, refers to that part of administration, which pertains to the administrative activities of the government. Now we will try to look into the definitions of Public Administration provided by various scholars. Woodrow Wilson Public administration is the detailed and systematic application of law. Every particular application of law is an act of administration. L.D. White ―Public administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy‖. As per White, this definition covers a multitude of particular operations in many fields the delivery of a letter, the sale of public land, the negotiation of a treaty, the award of compensation to an injured workman, the quarantine of a sick child, the 6|Page SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department removal of litter from a park, manufacturing uranium 235, and licensing the use of atomic energy. It includes military as well as civil affairs, much of the work of courts, and all the special fields of government activity-police, education, health, construction of public works, conservation, social security, and many others. The conduct of public affairs in advanced civilisations requires the employment of almost every profession and skill-engineering, law, medicine, and teaching; the crafts, the technical specialties, the office skills, and many others. Percy Mc Queen Public administration is related to the operations of government whether local or central. Luther Gulick Public administration is that part of the science of administration, which has to do with the government; it concerns itself primarily with the executive branch where the work of the government is done; though there are obviously problems also in connection with the legislative and judicial branches. J.M Pfiffner ―Administration consists of getting the work of government done by coordinating the efforts of people so that they can work together to accomplish their set tasks‖. M. Ruthanaswami ―When administration has to do with the affairs of a state or minor political institutions like the municipal or country council (district board), it is called public administration. All the acts of the officials of a government, from the peon in a remote office to the head of a state in the capital, constitute public administration.‖ H.A. Simon, D.W. Smithburg and V.A. Thompson 7|Page SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department ―By Public Administration is meant, in common usage, the activities of the executive branches of national, state and local governments, government corporations and certain other agencies of a specialized character. Specifically excluded are judicial and legislative agencies within the government and non-governmental administration.‖ Corson and Harris ―Public administration … is the action part of government, the means by which the purposes and goals of government are realized.‖ Dwight Waldo ―Public administration is the art and science of management as applied to the affairs of State.‖ M.E. Dimock ―Public Administration is concerned with ‗what‘ and ‗how‘ of the government. The ‗what‘ is the subject matter, the technical knowledge of a field, which enables the administrator to perform his tasks. The ‗how‘ is the technique of management, the principles according to which co-operative programmes are carried through to success. Each is indispensable, together they form the synthesis called administration‖. Nicholas Henry ―Public Administration is a broad-ranging and amorphous combination of theory and practice; its purpose is to promote a superior understanding of government and its relationship with the society, it governs, as well as to encourage public policies more responsive to social needs and to institute managerial practices attuned to effectiveness, efficiency and the deeper human requisites of the citizenry‖. The traditional definitions of Public Administration, which are given above reflect the view that the Public Administration is only involved in carrying out the policies and programmes of the government. It reflect that it has no role in policy making and also locates the administration the executive branch but today the term public administration is used in a broader sense 8|Page SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department that it is not only involved in carrying out the programmes of the government, but it also plays an important role in policy formulation and covers the three branches of the government. In this context we can reflect the definition offered by F.A. Nigro and L.G. Nigro. According to them Public Administration: is co-operative group effort in a public setting; covers all three branches-executive, legislative, and judicial, and their inter-relationships; thus a part of the political process; is different in significant ways from private administration; and is closely associated with numerous private groups and individuals in providing services to the community‖. In sum, public administration: is the non-political public bureaucracy operating in a political system; deals with the ends of the State, the sovereign will, the public interests and laws; is the business side of government and as such concerned with policy execution, but it is also concerned with policy-making; covers all three branches of government, although it tends to be concentrated in the executive branch; provides regulatory and service functions to the people in order to attain good life; differs significantly from private administration, especially in its emphasis on the public; and is interdisciplinary in nature as it draws upon other social sciences like political science, economics and sociology. 9|Page SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department NATURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION There are two views regarding the Nature of Public Administration, that is, Integral and Managerial. According to the integral view, ‗administration‘ is the sum total of all the activities – manual, clerical, managerial, etc., which are undertaken to realize the objectives of the organization. In this view all the acts of officials of the government from the Attendant to the Secretaries to the government and Head of the State constitute Public Administration. Henri Fayol and L.D. White are the supporters of this view. According to the managerial view of administration, the managerial activities of people who are involved in planning, organising, commanding, coordinating and controlling constitute Public Administration. This view regards administration as getting things done and not doing things. Luther Gullick, Herbert Simon, Smithburg and Thompson are the supporters of this view. The managerial view excludes Public Administration from non- managerial activities such as manual, clerical and technical activities. The two views differ from each other in many ways. According to Prof. M.P. Sharma the difference between the two views is fundamental. The integral view includes the activities of all the persons engaged in administration whereas the managerial view restricts itself only to the activities of the few persons at the top. The integral view depicts all types of activities from manual to managerial, from non-technical to technical whereas the managerial view takes into account only the managerial activities in an organisation. Furthermore, administration, according to the integral view would differ from one sphere to another depending upon the subject matter, but whereas that will not be the case according to the managerial point of view because the managerial view is identified with the managerial techniques common to all the fields of administration. The difference between the two views relates to the difference between management and operation or we may say between getting things done and 10 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department doing things. The correct meaning of the term administration would however, depend upon the context in which it is used. Dimock, and Koening sum up in the following words: ―As a study public administration examines every aspect of government‘s efforts to discharge the laws and to give effect to public policy; as a process, it is all the steps taken between the time an enforcement agency assumes jurisdiction and the last break is placed (but includes also that agency‘s participation, if any, in the formulation of the programme in the first place); and as a vocation, it is organising and directing the activities of others in a public agency.‖ SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION By the scope of Public Administration, we mean the major concerns of Public Administration as an activity and as a discipline.  Scope of Public Administration as an Activity Broadly speaking, Public Administration embraces all the activities of the government. Hence, as an activity the scope of public administration is no less than the scope of state activity. In the modern welfare state people expect many things – a wide variety of services and protection from the government. In this context public administration provides a number of welfare and social security services to the people. Besides, it has to manage government owned industries and regulate private industries. Public administration covers every area and activity within the ambit public policy. Thus, the scope of public administration is very wide in modern state.  Scope of Public Administration as a Discipline The scope of public administration as a discipline, that is subject of studies, comprises of the following: The POSDCoRB view several writers have defined the scope of public administration in varying terms. Gullick sums up the scope of the subject by 11 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department the letters of the word POSDCoRB which denote: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Co-ordinating reporting the Budgeting.  Planning means the working out in broad outline the things to be done, the methods to be adopted to accomplish the purpose.  Organisation means the establishment of the formal structure of authority through which the work is sub-divided, arranged, defined and coordinated.  Staffing means the recruitment and training of the personnel and their conditions of work.  Directing means making decisions and issuing orders and instructions.  Coordinating means inter-relating the work of various divisions, sections and other parts of the organisation.  Reporting means informing the superiors within the agency to whom the executive is responsible about what is going on.  Budgeting means fiscal planning, control and accounting. According to Gullick the POSDCoRB activities are common to all organisations. They are the common problems of management which are found in different agencies regardless of the nature of the work they do. POSDCoRB gives unity, certainty, and definiteness and makes the study more systematic. The critics pointed out that the POSDCoRB activities were neither the whole of administration, nor even the most important part of it. The POSDCoRB view overlooks the fact that different agencies are faced with different administrative problems, which are peculiar to the nature of the services, they render and the functions they performed. The POSDCoRB view takes into consideration only the common techniques of the administration and ignores the study of the ‗subject matter‘ with which the agency is concerned. A major defect is that the POSDCoRB view does not contain any reference to the formulation and implementation of the policy. Therefore, the 12 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department scope of administration is defined very narrowly, being too inward looking and too conscious of the top management. The Subject Matter View We all know that public administration deals not only with the processes but also with the substantive matters of administration, such as Defence, Law and Order, Education, Public Health, Agriculture, Public Works, Social Security, Justice, Welfare, etc. These services require not only POSDCoRB techniques but also have important specialised techniques of their own which are not covered by POSDCoRB techniques. For example, if you take Police Administration it has its own techniques in crime detection, maintenance of Law and Order, etc., which are much and more vital to efficient police work, than the formal principles of organisation, personnel management, coordination or finance and it is the same with other services too. Therefore, the study of public administration should deal with both the processes (that is POSDCoRB techniques and the substantive concerns). We conclude the scope of public administration with the statement of Lewis Meriam: ―Public administration is an instrument with two blades like a pair of scissors. One blade may be knowledge of the field covered by POSDCoRB, the other blade is knowledge of the subject matter in which these techniques are applied. Both blades must be good to make an effective tool‖. We may conclude the discussion with the observation of Herbert Simon who says that Public administration has two important aspects, namely deciding and doing things. The first provides the basis for the second. One cannot conceive of any discipline without thinking or deciding. Thus Public administration is a broad-ranging and an amorphous combination of theory and practice. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION The major concern of administration is to properly organise men and material for achieving desired ends. As a co-operative group activity, administration is truly universal and operates in all types of public and private organizations. In other words, administration occurs in both public and private 13 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department institutional settings. Its nature depends upon the nature of the setting and goals with which it is concerned. On the basis of the nature of the institutional setting, public administration can be roughly distinguished from private administration. Public administration is governmental administration concerned with achieving state purposes, determined by the state. Private administration, on the other hand is, concerned with administration of private business organization and is distinct from public administration. Distinction between public and private administration John Gaus, Ludivig Von Mises, Paul H. Appleby, Sir Josia Stamp, Herbert A. Simon, Peter Drucker, etc., in their writings, have made distinction between public and private administration. According to Simon, the distinction between public and private administration relates mainly to three points: Public administration is bureaucratic whereas private administration is business like; Public administration is political where as private administration is non- political; and Public administration is characterized by red-tape where as private administration is free from it. Felix A. Nigro has pointed out that government is also different from private organisation, as no private company can equal to it in size and diversity of activities. According to Sir Josiah Stamp, the four principles, which differentiate public from private administration, are: Principle of Uniformity: Common and uniform laws and regulations mostly regulate public Administration. 14 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department Principle of External Financial Control: the representatives of the people through a legislative body control Government revenues and heads of expenditure. Principle of Ministerial Responsibility: Public administration is accountable to its political masters and through them to the people. Principle of Marginal Return: The main objective of a business venture is profit, however small it may be. However, most of the objectives of public administration can neither be measured in money terms nor checked by accountancy methods. According to Paul H. Appleby public administration is different from private administration. He remark, ―In broad terms the governmental function and attitude have at least three complementary aspects that go to differentiate government from all other institutions and activities: breadth of scope, impact and consideration; public accountability; political character. No non- governmental institution has the breadth of government. Appleby notes that the political character of Public Administration differentiates it from private administration. Public Administration is subject to political direction and control. This is the primary distinction between the two. He further argues, ―Administration is politics since it must be responsive to the public interest. It is necessary to emphasise the fact that popular political processes, which are the essence of democracy, can only work through governmental organisation, and that all governmental organisations are not merely administrative entities, they are and must be political organisms.‖ Appleby reflects further on the distinction between public and private administration in the context of public accountability ―Government administration differs from all other administrative work to a degree not even faintly realised outside, by virtue of its public nature, the way in which it is subject to public scrutiny and outcry. This interest often runs to details of administrative action that in private business would never be of concern other than inside the organisation. 15 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department According to Appleby private administration cannot claim the breadth of scope, impact and consideration of the public administration. He observes, ―The organised government impinges upon and is affected by practically everything that exists or moves in our society. It involves policies and actions of immense complexity. Its fullest possible understanding requires the wisdom of many specialists as will as the key participants in public and private life. The more important distinguishing features of Public administration may be described under the following sub-heads: Political Direction: Public administration is political, while private administration is non-political, public administration takes place in a political context. Absence of profit motive: The absence of profit motive from the Public administration is another feature, which distinguishes it from the private administration. The primary purpose of governmental organisation is to provide services to the people and promote social good. Prestige: Public administrators who serve in the Government enjoy high status and prestige in comparison to their counterparts in private enterprises especially developing countries. Public Gaze: All the actions of public administration are exposed to wide public gaze because the public closely watches it. This does not happen in private administration. Service and Cost: Most governments spend more money than their income or revenues. That is the reason for finding generally a deficit budget that is, expenditure exceeding income. Conversely, private administration income often exceeds expenditure without which they cannot survive. Legal framework: Public administration operates within a legal framework. It is rule oriented. The responsibilities of public administrators are fixed by a set of constitutional practices, laws and 16 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department regulations. Government officials are obliged to act within their legal powers and not outside the law. Consistency of treatment: A government official is required by law to maintain a high degree of consistency in his dealings with the public. He has to observe the principle of equality of treatment in serving the people. It is a legal obligation to not to discriminate against any person. Public accountability: Public accountability is the hallmark of public administration in a democracy. Public administration is responsible to the public, though not directly but indirectly through political executive, legislature, judiciary, etc. Large-scale administration: Public administration is large-scale administration. It is said that almost anything under the sun is directly or indirectly under the domain of public administration. It is by all means larger than any big private concern in terms of size, complexity and diversity of activities. Monopolistic and Essential Services: In the field of public administration, there is generally a monopoly of the government and it does not generally allow private parties to compete with it. For example, no person or bodies of persons are allowed to establish or perform functions related to public services like national security, foreign relations, law and order, mint and currency, as these are the exclusive fields of the government and thoroughly important for the community and polity to prosper. Officials remain Anonymous: In public administration, even the most senior officials remain anonymous and their identity is not disclosed. This is so because whatever they do, they do in the name of the government and not in their own name. Financial meticulousness: Public administration has to be very careful in financial matters because it is working as custodian of people‘s money. 17 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department Lower level of Efficiency: Efficiency is said to be the cornerstone of any organisation. However, due to varied responsibilities, lack of effective control, less accountability, involvement of a large number of levels and job security of employees, efficiency has not been there in public organisations to the effect desired. When compared to private administration, one finds that the degree of efficiency in public organisations is at a lower level. With profit as the major motive coupled with excessive control and flexibility in personnel administration the level of efficiency in private organisations is much higher. Similarities between Public and Private Administration Scholars like Henry Fayol, Mary P. Follet and L. Urwick do not make a distinction between public and private administration. The classical writers held the view that public and private administrations are the undifferentiated members of the genus administration. Henri Foyal, for example, says that there is only one administrative science, which can be applied equally well to public and private sectors. In his address in the Second International Congress of Administrative Science, Fayol remarked, ―The meaning which I have given to the word administration and which has been generally adopted, broadens considerably the field of administrative sciences. It embraces not only the public service but also enterprises of every size and description, of every form and every purpose. All undertakings require planning, organisation, command, co-ordination and control and in order to function properly, all must observe the same general principles. We are no longer confronted with several administrative sciences but with one which can be applied equally well to public and to private affairs‖. The following similarities between the two types of administration may be noted: 1. Both public and business administration rely on common skills, techniques and procedures. 18 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department 2. In modern times the principle of profit motive is not peculiar to private administration, because it is now accepted as a laudable objective for public sector enterprises also. 3. In personnel management, the private organisations have been influenced greatly by the practices of public organisations. 4. The private concerns are also subjected to many legal constraints. Government is exercising much control over business firms through regulatory legislation such as taxation, monetary and licensing policies, etc. Consequently, they are not as free as they once used to be. 5. There is a similar type of hierarchy and management systems, both in public and private sectors. Both have same kind of organisation structure, superior – subordinate relationships, etc. 6. Both public and private administration carries on continuous efforts to improve their internal working and also for efficient delivery of services to people or customers. 7. Public and private administration serves the people, whether being called clients or customers. Both have to maintain close contact with people to inform about their services and also to get feedback about services and product. In both the cases, public relations help them to inform and improve their services to the people. SUMMARY The preceding discussion shows that the distinction between public and private administration is not absolute. In fact, they are becoming more and more alike in many respects. However, it does not mean that there are no significant differences between these two types of administration. Waldo observes that Public administration is distinct because it reflects the peculiar characteristics of government activity and the public setting in which it functions. 19 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department Given the wide acceptance of the ideas of liberalization, privatization and globalization, both public and private administrations have to compete in the same area to provide services to people. Here both are dealing with customers, who pay for their services, in such a situation it narrows down the differences between the public and private administration. New Public Management, which has come into prominence, recently, puts emphasis on managerial techniques, which are to be adopted by public administration for the efficient delivery of public services. But in providing public services in the field of social and welfare areas there exists a difference between public and private administration With this brief characterization, it could be stated that both public and private administration are placed in different environments. But this difference is more apparent than real. According to Waldo, The generalisation which distinguish public administration from private administration by special care for equality of treatment, legal authorisation of, and responsibility of action, public justification of decisions, financial probity and meticulousness, etc. are of very limited applicability,‖ In fact public and private administrations are the ―two species of the same genus, but they have special values and techniques of their own which give to each its distinctive character. ASSESSMENT/ ENRICHMENT Process Questions: 1. Which of the following definitions of public administration can be best understood? Explain how you understand the definition. Just choose one. 2. What are the views regarding nature of public administration? Give at least three distinctions. 3. How will you conclude regarding the scope of public administration? 4. Compare and contrast public administration and private administration. 20 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department Activity: 1. Explain the common definition of public administration as ―government in action.‖ 2. Illustrate to show the difference of the following terms, administration, management and organization? 3. Make a diagram showing the scope of public administration. 4. Do research and create a table to show the difference between public and private administration. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS: Baker, R.J.S., 1972, Administrative Theory and Public Administration, Hutchinson University Library, London. Bhattacharya, Mohit, 1998, New Horizons of Public Administration, Jawahar Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi. Denhardt, Robert B. and Joseph W. Grubbs, 2003, Public Administration: An action Orientation, Fourth Edition, Thomson (Wadsworth), Canada. Srivastava, Om Prie, 1991, Public Administration and Management, The Broadening Horizons, Volume 1, Himalaya Publishing House 21 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department Lesson 2 THE IMPORTANCE AND ROLE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN MODERN STATE INTRODUCTION In the modern state, the role and scope of public administration is ever expanding and all encompassing. We are way past the laissez-fare state which was responsible for maintaining law and order only. The modern state which expects government to provide much more has seen the role of public administration change dramatically, since those times. The current role and functions adopted by public administration owes its origin to the changes which the human history has witnessed in the last couple of centuries. The first important change was the industrial revolution which resulted in the urbanization of the large cities of the world. Secondly, there was a change in the political philosophy from minimalist state intervention (or laissez-fare) and individualism to social welfare. The two World Wars combined with the changing international scenarios with new countries, alliances and organizations like the formation of United Nations, generated a need to reform the goals of administration in the society; not just of within a nation but also with respect to the world. Lastly, the increasing population of the world means tremendous pressure on the available resources. The role of providing for basic amenities like food and shelter has therefore fallen into the lap of the Government. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of the lesson students should be able to: 1. Discuss the importance of public administration in the government. 2. Enumerate the role of public administration 22 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department 3. Relate the importance and role of public administration in the present government. LESSON OUTLINE Importance of Public Administration The study of administration assumed significance, according to Woodrow Wilson, as a consequence to the increasing complexities of society, growing functions of state and growth of governments on democratic lines. This exhaustive list of functions made to think as to ‗how‘ and in what ‗directions‘ these functions should be effectively performed. To this, Wilson suggested that there was a need to reform the government in the administrative field. As per Wilson, the object of administrative study is to discover what government can properly and successfully does and how it can do these things with utmost efficiency and the least possible cost either of money or of energy. The importance of public administration as a specialized subject can be attributed to the following reasons: 1. One of the important reasons is the practical concern that the government today has to work towards the public interest. The first and foremost objective of public administration is to efficiently deliver public services. In this context, Wilson Ian definition of the subject as efficiency promoting and pragmatic field was the first explicitly articulated statement on the importance of a separate discipline of public administration. During the first half of the preceding century, a numbers of countries have appointed committees to look into the problems of administration and recommended suitable administrative machinery to respond to diverse public needs. The Haldane Committee Report (1919) in Britain; the President‘s Committee on Administrative Management (1937) in the United States; 2. Administration is looked at, in the social science perspective, as a cooperative and social activity. Hence the concern of academic inquiry would be to understand the impact of government policies and operations on society. What kind of society do the policies envisage? To what extent administrative action is non-discriminatory? How is public administration functioning and what are the immediate and long term effects of governmental 23 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department action on the social structure, the economy and polity?; etc. are questions requiring careful analysis. From the social science perspective, public administration, as a discipline, has to draw on a variety of sister disciplines such as History, Sociology, Economics, Geography, Philosophy, Psychology, etc., with the objective to explain and not just to prescribe. 3. Public administration has a special status in the developing countries. Many of these countries, after independence from the colonial rule have stressed upon speedy socio–economic development. Obviously, these countries have to rely on government for speedy development. The latter requires a public administration to be organized and effectively operated for increasing productivity quickly. Likewise, social welfare activities have to be effectively executed. These aspects have given birth to the new sub-discipline of development administration. The emergence of development administration is indicative of a felt need for a body of knowledge about how to study the third world administration and at the same time to bring about speedy socio- economic development with government‘s intervention. Development administration has therefore, emerged as a sub-discipline to serve the cause of development. 4. Public administration, as witnessed holds a place of significance in the lives of people. It touches them at every step. For most of their needs, the citizens depend upon public administration. In view of the important role of public administration in the lives of people, the citizens of a country cannot ignore. Therefore, its teaching should become a part of the curriculum of educational institutions. People must get to know about the structure of government, the activities it undertakes and the manner in which these are actually performed. The study of public administration will contribute to the realization of the values of citizenship. Importance of Public Administration as an Activity The contemporary age, this has witnessed the emergence of ‗Administrative State‘; public administration has become an essential part of society and a dominant factor. The functions it is called upon to perform, have expanded in scope and nature, and what is more, are continually increasing. Many of them 24 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department are more positive in nature because they care for the essential requirements of human life, be it health, education, recreation, sanitation, social security or others. It is, therefore, a creative factor, with its motto being ‗human welfare‘. These functions are over and above its regulatory functions. The viewpoints of eminent scholars, as referred to below, amply reflect the significance of public administration. Woodrow Wilson: ―Administration is the most obvious part of government; it is government inaction, it is the executive, the operative and the most visible side of the government. Brooke Adams: ―Administration is an important human faculty because its chief function is to facilitate social change and to cushion the stock of social revolution‖. W.B. Donham: ‗If our civilization fails, it will be mainly because of breakdown of administration‘. Paul H. Appleby: ‗Administration is the basis of government. No government can exist without administration. Without administration government would be a discussion club, if indeed, it could exist at all‘. THE ROLE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN VARIOUS FACETS IS NOTED BELOW:  Basis of the Government: A Government can exist without a legislature or an independent judiciary. But no Government can exist without administration.  An instrument for providing services: Public administration mainly concerned with the performance of various activities performed by government in the public interest. Felix 25 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department A. Nigro aptly remarks, ―The real core of administration is the basic service which is performed for the public‖.  An instrument for implementing policies: Modern governments go a long way in formulating and adopting sound policies laws and regulations. It should not be forgotten that such policies, laws, etc. are not merely printed papers. Such paper declarations of intent are translated into reality by public administration thus converting words into action and form into substance.  A stabilizing force in society: Public administration is a major force for bringing stability in society. It has been observed that though government often changes, but violent change is seldom experienced by administration. An element of continuity between the old and the new orders are provided by public administration. It does not hold true only of constitutional changes of government in democratic countries, but is also reflected when there is revolutionary changes in the form and character of government.  An instrument of social change and economic development: Public administration‘s role as a change agent is particularly crucial in developing nations. It is expected of the state at present towork for accelerating socio-economic change and not to be a passive agency to maintain the statusquo.  Technical Character: The present day government is expected to provide various services to its population. The increase in the number of functions undertaken by the government requires highly specialized, professional and technical, services. Modern public administration usually represents a galaxy of all of a nation‘s occupations. According to Gerald Caiden public administration has assumed the following crucial roles in contemporary modern society: 26 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department Preservation of polity; Maintenance of stability and order; Institutionalization of Socio Economic changes; Management of large scale commercial services; Ensuring growth and economic development; Protection of the weaker sections of society; Formation of public opinion; and Influencing Public policies. The points mentioned below summarize the reasons for the growing importance of public administration: Emergence of Welfare and Democratic state Emergence of welfare and democratic state has led to an increase in the activities of public administration compared to that of the laissez- faire state. The state has to now serve all sections of people in the society. This amount enhanced responsibilities of public administration. Public administration is also to regulate and control private economic enterprises to meet the objectives of the state. Industrial Revolution The industrial revolution gave rise to socio-economic problems making the government to assume new roles and responsibilities such as protection and promotion of the rights of workers in industrial establishments, etc. Consequently, the state has enacted a number of Industrial and Labour laws and it is imperative for public administration to implement such laws in order to meet the requirements of labour welfare. Scientific and Technological Development 27 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department Scientific and technological developments have brought about welcome additions in infrastructure such as power, transport and communication system. The invention of telephone, telegraph and other mechanical devices such as typewriter, tele-printer, and calculators, photocopying machines, computers, fax and the electronic mail has brought revolutionary changes in office administration. All these have made possible ‗big government‘ and ‗large scale administration‘. Besides changing the ethos and character of public administration, the revolution in information and communication technologies have contributed to improved delivery of services to people. Economic Planning Centralized economic planning has been pursued in many developing countries as a method for socio-economic development. It requires a large number of experts and elaborates administrative machinery for plan formulation, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. Apart from the reasons cited the rapid growth of population, modern warfare, increase in natural and manmade disasters, decline in social harmony, increase in violence due to conflicts, communal riots, ethnic wars, terrorism, etc. have increased the importance of public administration. It goes without saying that public administration is not only the operative but also the most obvious part of the government. It is government in action and occupies a significant place not merely as an instrument of governance but also as an important mechanism for preserving and promoting the welfare of community. It has substantive impact upon the life of the people. It is a vital process charged with implementation of pre-determined, welfare oriented, and developmental objectives. Summary: The Prime Objective of emerging or developing countries, as well as revitalizing old states, is to reinforce themselves as to be adaptable to existing 28 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department circumstances and influences. To attain situation, an effective system of public administration is imperative. The survival of the government depends primarily on its public administration, an essential tool of government. Its role in society, regardless of time revolves around the concept of public service. In its new role as change agent, public administration significantly contributes in shaping both the aspirations and expectations of the people in its efforts to improve their quality of life. Carrying out the public policies is the role of public administration. Hence, the ends of it are the ultimate objectives of the state itself. Moreover, public administration has become inextricably interwoven into every aspect of human life. As such its emerging role is becoming more difficult. Its character, structure, nature and scope are constantly changing. Finally, the role of public administration in designing the country‘s policies depends primarily on the nature of the objectives being pursued and the social conditions prevailing at the moment. ASSESSMENT/ENRICHMENT Process Questions: 1. Enumerate at least three importance of public administration in the government. 2. Which among the roles of public administration plays a vital part in the government? Why? 3. How do you assess both roles and importance of public administration? Activity: 1. Make a table showing the relationship between the roles and importance of public administration in the government. 29 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS: Bouckaert, G. and Pollitt, C. (2003) Public Management Reform: A Comparative Analysis, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Breton, A. (1996) Competitive Government: An Economic Theory of Politics and Public Finance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chapman, R.A. (2000) Ethics in the Public Service for the New Millennium. Aldershot: Ash gate. LESSON 3 NATURE OF BUREAUCRACY 30 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department INTRODUCTION Bureaucracy is ―a type of organization designed to accomplish large scale administration task by systematically coordinating the work of many individuals.‖ German sociologist Max Weber was the first scholar describes the characteristics of bureaucracy systematically. He was also the first to analyze its role in an industrial society. In Weber‘s view, bureaucracy is the best firm of organization. As an organization, it substitutes a rule of law for a rule based on the whims of those who happen to govern. In latter case, the superiors were apt to be moved by ―personal sympathy and favour by grace and gratitude.‖ Over the years, bureaucracy has become the dominant form of organization in modern societies. Yet, many of these organizations particularly in the Philippines were apparently organized by people with little knowledge and understanding of the bureaucracy, as well as of its far- reaching implication in the lives of the people. Very often, therefore, bureaucracy is used in a negative manner, As such; it fails to produce the organizational results with adequate efficiency. People cannot be expected to support an organization which they are not familiar with. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson students should be able to: 1. Define bureaucracy 2. Identify the characteristics of bureaucracy 31 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department 3. Enumerate the characteristics of Philippine bureaucracy 4. Discuss Philippine bureaucratic behaviour LESSON OUTLINE BASIC CONCEPT OF BUREAUCRACY  Is a type of organization designed to accomplish large-scale administrative tasks by systematically coordinating the work of many individuals. -Peter M. Blau Bureaucracy in Modern Society  “Is reflected in certain specific forms of organizational behavior: hierarchy, subdivision, specialization, fixed way of doing things, and professionalization.” - Dimock  “It is a specific form of social organization for administrative purposes.” -Nigro and Nigro,  Bureaucratic structures in institutions are not necessarily confined to political organizations. They tend to develop wherever it is necessary to coordinate the activities of many people. Bureaucracy offers both an efficient mechanism for reaching institutional goals and the danger of allowing the mechanism to appear more important than the service it is supposed to perform. -Scorro S. Espiritu DEVELOPMENT OF BUREAUCRATIC ORGANIZATIONS Observance of the classical principles of organization produces bureaucracy. However, it requires certain conditions for its development. 32 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department A civilization must reach a certain degree of maturity before bureaucracies emerge to exert a significant influence on the life patterns of people in a society. The institutions in society must be differentiated in terms of the role they play. Differentiation takes place along functional lines; for example, the separation of the economic functions from the family. In this sense, the family is no longer the locus of the production of goods and services. Instead, such activities are centralized in specialized institutions. - William G. Scott and Terence R. Mitchell Experience tends universally to show that the purely bureaucratic type of administrative organization - that is, the monocratic variety point of view, capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency and is in this sense formally the most rational known means of carrying out imperative control over human beings. It is superior to any other form in precision, in stability, in the stringency of its discipline, and in its reliability. It thus makes possible a particularly high degree of calculability of results for the heads of the organization and for those acting in relation to it. It is finally superior both in intensive efficiency and in the scope of its operations, and is formally capable of application to all kinds of administrative tasks. The development of the modern form of the organization of corporate groups in all fields is nothing less than identical with the development and continued spread bureaucratic administration. This is true of church and state, of armies, political parties, economic enterprises, organizations to promote all kinds of causes, private associations, clubs, and many others. The development is, to take the most striking case, the most crucial phenomenon of the modern Western state……The whole pattern of everyday life is cut to fit this framework. For bureaucratic administration is, other things being equal, always, from a formal, technical point of view, the most rational type. For the needs of mass administration today, it is completely indispensable. The choice is only that between bureaucracy and dilettantism in the field of administration. -Max Weber 33 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department The society as a whole must be in a position to supply the resources for support of bureaucratic organizations. As such, society is expected to underwrite bureaucratic activities. Theoretically, therefore, the bureaucracy has to pursue socially acceptable goals. -Scott and Mitchell CHARACTERISTICS OF BUREAUCRACY The following characteristics of an organization can be used for the analysis of a bureaucracy: 1. Positions and offices are clearly defined. 2. The hierarchical arrangement of authority, rights and obligations are specifically drawn. 3. The personnel are selected on the basis of technical or professional qualifications. 4. There are defined rules governing official behaviour. 5. Security of tenure and the pursuit of a career with promotion in the hierarchy are assured. Ideal Type Model of Weber CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILIPPINE BUREAUCRACY  Vulnerability to nepotism 34 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department  Perpetuation of spoils system  Apathetic public reaction to bureaucratic misconduct  Availability of external peaceful means of correcting bureaucratic weaknesses  Survival of Historical Experience  Non special typing of bureaucrats  Lack of Independence from politics  Essential instruments of social change PHILIPPINE BUREAUCRATIC BEHAVIOR The Philippine bureaucratic behaviour is influenced by its socio- economic structure, as well as by traditions and cultures of the Filipinos. On the other hand, the behaviour of people largely influences the behaviour of organizations. The traditional values that tend to predominate the Philippine setting are those that center on the family, the family system. Superimposed upon the Weberian bureaucratic model are the conflicting patterns of segmentation, personalism, and reciprocity. o The sense of pity (awa) o Sense of self-esteem (amor-propio) o Sense of gratitude ( utang na loob) o Sense of camaraderie (pakikisama) o Padrino system 35 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department Many of social considered the following as some of the types of behaviour of Philippine bureaucracy: 1. Conformity to policies  Bureaucracy stresses unquestioning compliance to organizational policies, rules and regulations. e.g.: The Filipino is Authoritarian. When power is given to him, he makes known to everyone that he is the boss 2. Preference toward continuity and routinization  Bureaucracy puts much emphasis on specialization hence, there is a general preference for the bureaucrats to maintain the status quo (existing state of affairs) in the organization. 3. Loss of self- direction or self- assertion  The Filipino bureaucrats tend to submerge themselves into a collective mode of decision-making and responsibility that defines bureaucratic structure. 4. Politically supportive  The bureaucratic system in the Philippines tends to support the political party in power. 36 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department SUMMARY Organizations are not alike. Yet, when all differences are taken into consideration, many common elements standout. Basically, they are all bureaucratic organizations. By simplifying its complex organizational structures, it is expected that a bureaucracy will attain its goals of efficiency, economy, and greater reliability in producing its outputs. As a social organization, bureaucracy has strong as well as weak points. In spite of some negative characteristics, it stills the only systematized method of carrying out the vital tasks of institution. Moreover, there are possible solutions to the problems. Each solution represents a distinct method of improving its personnel administration. Over the years, the characteristics of Philippine Bureaucracy have taken on nothing significant to create changes, inspite of the efforts of the government to reform it. The Philippine bureaucracy has its own types of behaviour. ASSESSMENT / ENRICHMENT Process Questions: 1. Choose one definition of bureaucracy which you find easy to understand and briefly explain. 2. Which among concepts of bureaucracy is more likely applicable in real scenario? 3. Explain the conditions on the development of bureaucratic organizations in line with the idea of Scott and Mitchell. 4. Enumerate at least 5 characteristics of Philippine Bureaucracy. 5. What influence Philippine bureaucratic behaviour? 37 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department Activity 1. Make a table with 5 rows and 2 columns. On the first column, enumerate the traditional values that tend to predominate in the Philippine bureaucracy. On the second column explain how they influence or affect the organization. REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS: Peter M. Blau, Bureaucracy in Modern Society (New York: Random House, Inc, 1956) p. 14 Felix A. Nigro and Lloyd G. Nigro, Modern Public Administration, 5th ed. (New York: Harper & row, Publishers, Inc, 1980), p. 123 Richard H. Hall, The Concept of Bureaucracy: An Empirical Assessment‘, American Journal of Sociology , Jluy 1963, p 33 Robert K. Merton, Bureaucratic Structure and Personality, ― Social Theory and Social Structures, rev ed.( New york: The free Press of Glencoe, Inc.,1957) p. 195-206 LESSON 4 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION INTRODUCTION 38 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department Government and public administration are as old as the history of people working together in large groups. These have been essential features of human society long before the dawn of recorded history. Ever since man emerged from the most primitive forms of association, he has had to devise administrative systems. It should be pointed out; however, that public administration and politics are connected in such manner that one becomes almost meaningless without the other. The administrative process of government could only be seen well within the broad context of its political system. As Marshall E. Dimock , Gladys O. Dimock, and Loius W. Koeinig put it: An understanding of politics is the key to an understanding of public administration.‖ It became clear, therefore, that public administration works in a highly political environment. Moreover, much of the work done in public administration begins with the concepts of political science. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 1. Discuss the foundation of government and politics 2. Assess the concept of Politician-Administrator Accord 3.. Explain the implications government and politics to public administration LESSON OUTLINE FOUNDATION OF GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Culture is a way of life. It refers to the abstraction of characteristics acquired by an individual or group of individuals through learning after birth. It also represents the influence upon the individual of his environment. Different 39 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department from concept of race, which also identifies a person or a group of people; it varies according to different persuasions and localities. From a political scientist‘s view, it is distinct aspect of social life of politics, economics and religion. Moreover, these aspects of social organization comprise the wholeness of a way of life of a person or group which, to anthropologist, is culture. Hence, the totality of the elements and aspects of the environment of a person or a group is his or its culture. Social elements constitute culture which includes the family system, child-rearing, and the language they speak and write. It is to these basic social elements that people in a common environment identify with each other as individuals belonging to a particular group. A group is identified by the goal seek.It is, therefore, the extent of a common goal that leads to their political identity and solidarity. On the other hand, politics is a ―search for end as well as means.‖ It is the ―whole range of man‘s endeavour to govern him, to provide a structure and practice for the exercise political power. Considering also the far-reaching influence and effect of the social system that binds a community, it appears that the outlook some people display on political issues ―and the judgments they express on the actions of their government are shaped by the whole social amalgam‖. Leslie Lipson puts it in this way: …politics is deeply involved in the fundamentals of the social order and shares in its characteristics…Hence, the analysis of politics should begin where society itself begins that is, with the formation of groups. Society is a system of group, and these are the breeding ground for politic. Therefore, political consciousness in a society arouses the necessity for leadership. It leads to the formation of government, which shall wield authority in the name of the organization, the society, or the people. In doing so, it becomes a “personal competition and intrigue.” Ideally, the focus in the organization of a government, however, is the need of the people. A government is needed by a nation or a state. The state involves agencies, exercises its sovereignty, uses it powers, and as the right 40 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department to allocate goods and services within the system. As a network of systematic relationship, the government comes in to weave together the individual threads into a unified force. It this organization, politics enlarges the purpose of the state as it applies reason to patterns of political behaviour and controversies. The government swings with and along the temperament of the people indulging in politics. Thus, government will change while the same state continues. The viability of any political organization is affected by various factors are people, territory, natural resources, technology, and economic capacity to make the political unit alive. In addition, the influence, as caused by the ecology, could be included in the list. The citizens‘ needs and demands made upon the government also contribute to the viability of the political unit. Political scientists point to protection from the forces of lawlessness and violence, domestic as well as foreign, as the most basic need of the citizens. To this end, one could see the main reason why a government should exist in any given political unit. In all political communities, ―there is a widespread expectation that government should pursue what is variously called public interest, the general welfare, or the common good. ―Effective security, therefore, had to be collective security‖ Lipson concludes. ―The protection that man could not obtain by acting singly had to be found by cooperating as a group. This group function, however, has to be governed by the common attitudes or culture of the community or the collective body. It is the consciousness of the self in a group that raise this interest in a given public unit or cluster. 41 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department The study of politics arrives only at generalizations to which there are always exceptions. In this vein, Lipson says: Nothing is predetermined for us beyond the human power to change it. Nothing that we have inherited or are now doing is exempt from our capacity to keep or alter. All social conduct, social organizations, and social institution are the products of human activity, past and present. The ―capacity to keep‖ implies an ability to live with the past of a community or political unit and its people, making use of the past as a take-off ground for future action, future policies, and future organization; and keeping a keen sense of history to take notice from its pages lessons that may be of great help in shaping or understanding the present attitudes prevailing among its people. On the other hand, ―capacity to alter‖ would be a go-signal for any political worker to sift through varied grains of the past what needs to be changed at present, or what could possibly be changed in the immediate future in the pursuit of an immediate goal. Change may be necessary in a political function for a political unit. Hopefully, it would eventually lead to progress and development. However, change should be qualified, for by itself it does not promise eventual progress and development. Hence a promising approach to public administration is for the administrator to have a fuller grasp of the emerging needs of his people, a better idea of the people‘s psychology-going deep down to the grassroots while keeping a close view of international matters. The needs of his people will guide him to act accordingly, to fashion and to recommend the enactment of law to safeguard their condition, or to meet the problems posed by these needs. In this perspective, public administration ―consists of all those operation having for their purpose the fulfilment or enforcement of public policy. 42 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department Certainly, a good administrator knows how to find the answer to his people‘s economic question- answers which can lead to giving wholesome growth to their political system. Politics can only be viable in an environment characterized by economic security and provision for strong socio-cultural foundation. POLITICIAN-ADMINISTRATOR ACCORD The viability of the public administrator depends, to a great extent, on the political stability of the country. The administrator cannot divorce himself from political influence. A Filipino professor of public administration puts it this way: Politics and public administration are so intertwined as to make it impossible to speak of one without mentioning the other. The fact is: there can be no public administration without politics and no politics without public administration. Indeed, all aspects of government operation revolve in a political milieu. Under the bureaucratic structure of the government, the administrator cannot achieve the objectives of his organization without political intervention. Appropriations in carrying out the goals of any government institution, for instance, must be authorized by the legislature. Hence, he should also endeavour to win their support for the program of his administration. On this issue of relationships with the politician, the tractor fosters politician-administrator accord without playing politics and unduly giving in to the partisan demands of the politicians to the detriment of the government service‖. As a general rule, administrators have to possess broad perspectives in the management of the affairs of government. They consider primarily the national interest in the implementation of laws. However, there are some instances when the role of a government institution, as mandated in its 43 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department charter, runs counter to the request or interest of a constituent of an individual politician. At this point, it is the duty of the administrator to endeavour to accommodate such request without sacrificing the interest of the government, since he cannot divorce or separate politics from administration. While the powers of the politicians and the administrators may be theoretically separate, their powers are intended to be integrated for the general welfare of the people. To be effective lawmakers, it is the duty of legislator to know what is going on in every department of the government. The administrator, on the other hand, should know that politicians owe their duties not only to the general population, but also to their particular constituents. Thus, at times, it is the desire of the politicians to be of service to the people they represent that causes their viewpoints to become ―myopic‖ or ―parochial.‖ In other words, the powers of the politicians are not intended to be exercised to destroy the program of the administrator but to support it. Reconciliation of problems along this line may, therefore, take many forms. It should, however, be primarily aimed at catering to the interest of a greater number of people. As such the politician-administrator accord may be fostered by (1) social relations to the extent permitted by public duty and good sense; (2) giving the due considerations to political recommendations; and (3) an intelligent discussion of the needs of public administration jointly by legislator and administrators. In doing so, he should be guided, according to Paul H. Appleby: Government administration differs from all other administrative work to a degree not even faintly realized outside, by virtue of its public nature, the way it is subject to public scrutiny and outcry. An administrator coming into government is struck at once, and continually thereafter, by the press and public interest I every 44 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department detail of his life, personality, and conduct. This interest often runs to details of administrative action that in private business would never be of concern other than inside the organization. Each employee hired, each one demoted, transferred, or discharged, every efficiency rating, every assignment of responsibility, each change in administrative structure, each conversation, each letter, has to be thought about in terms of possible public agitation, investigation, or judgment. The administrator should be guided also by the laws, good sense, and ethical considerations, as well as by the realization that a politician is not an enemy too be avoided, but an ally and a constitutional partner in the business of government. IMPLICATIONS TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION A few ideas that take into account the social consciousness of the common man have found their way into Philippine public administration. The American concept of democracy and government fettered somehow the minds of possibly enterprising Filipino statesmen. As a result, Filipino seemed to cling on the popular concept of the government of laws which had been the greatest hallmark of American life and all those states which embraced this form of popular government until President Ferdinand E. Marcos took a bold step for the revolutionary reforms of the country when he signed Presidential Proclamation No.1081 on September 21,1972,placing the entire Philippines under martial law, hoping to save the Republic and to form a new society as a result of such ―revolutionary consciousness.‖ As the old traditional societies have broken down in the massive tides of independence, inherited parliamentary and presidential governments of all varieties have been found wanting, and have been discarded, often with regret and reluctance but enviably under the relentless pressure of events. Regarding the use of force, there are political units which would submit to the aberrations of demagogue; while in other places, there would be an active resistance. Between diplomacy and the rule of gun, there are consequences that certain groups gain from those that do not; reactions would vary, of course, and public opinion would be as varied according to the socio- cultural temperament and attitudes of the people. Government policies set to achieve maximum peace and economic stability for this matter- which is 45 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department two ends of good government must, therefore, be geared toward the achievement of these ends. Thus, a good public administration is expected very much to tackle this particular responsibility. Legal violations or reactions to violations are similarly governed by domestic concepts and practices inherent in any community. Along this line, public administration has to take into account how the people would face certain measures and how they would fare when thrown into some expedient means taken by the government to safeguard the national security or some other problems of the nation to which the government must act accordingly. There are measures which require obedience if they are just and reasonable; others require acceptance if they are for the good of the nation. If the political geography of the Philippines would be considered, a central government indeed has much difficulty. On the other hand, a severely autonomous system of government might end up in some unwanted rifts in the total picture of the country‘s national unity worst, separated by as it is by seas, the country could also be divided by consciousness, taking into account the propensity of the Filipinos for regionalism and ethnic identities enmeshed by a flair for religious tapestries, and the Filipino as a unified concept of race may haply end up as a torn identity , the present efforts towards nationalism notwithstanding. Thus the staggering implication of this factor must be considered by any public administrator. The religion of a people may also tighten its hold on any government. Therefore, public administrators cannot just shrug off the religious aspect of the people‘s consciousness. At the same time, public administrators also seem to be fazed with recognizing law where it is. How a political unit would possibly react to a law of greater geographical, social or economic consequences still is governed by that people‘s cultural perspective and their territorial behaviour. Public administration, considerably, must look beyond the realm of cultural barriers if it were to relatively find protective ramparts in its governmental system. Political ideas in a prison, apparently, have no such 46 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department use. Ideological straight jackets would also be as disadvantageous if a government is living with a maze of complexities of political eventualities in its local territories and with its relations with other world political units. SUMMARY Government and public administration are as old as the history of people working together in large groups. They are connected in a way that one becomes almost meaningless without the other. A successful government depends on a sound political system. Politics should have strong socio-cultural and political foundations. The basic factor for a strong cultural and political foundation is definitely the people. The viability of public administration depends, to a great extent, on the political stability of the country. Public administration should look beyond the realm of culture, government, and politics to be most responsive to the needs of the people and to be really effective in its function. ASSESSMENT / ENRICHMENT Process Questions: 1. How politics affects administration? 2. Could and should public administration be totally separated from politics? Why? or why not? Expound your answer. 47 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department 3. With the problems stated regarding government and politics in public administration what would you suggest as effective solutions to solve such problem? Activity: 1. Create a table of three columns. In the first column list down at least three problems you have observed in the system of the local government units. In the second column, the solutions that could be done to solve it. In the third column, justify whether it is possible,why or why not? REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS: Sharfritz, J. M. and Russel, E. W. (2005). Introducing Public Administration. Pearson Education Inc. Ajayi, K. (2000). International Administration and Economic Relation in a Changing World. Ibadan: Majab Waldo, D. (1955). The Study of Public Administration. New York: Random House. Rodee, C.C.,Christol,C,Q.,& Anderson, T.J. (1957).Introduction to Political Science,( 2nd ed.).New York: Mc Graw-Hill Book Company Inc., p. 474 Links: https://www.slideshare.net/rmel21/modules-in-introduction-to-public- administration#:~:text=The%20principle%20of%20Public%20Administration, %2C%20coordinating%2C%20reporting%20and%20budgeting. LESSON 5 THE ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION INTRODUCTION 48 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department Often there is uncertainty about public administration being a science. However, one thing is certain. Many social scientists would agree that public administration, as an organization, is influenced by its environment. Its ecological factors condition its organizational behaviour as they continuously interact with it. This is to say that administrative activities of an organization face a changing pattern due to the environmental constraints which come across its administration. Bear in mind that the environmental situation keeps on changing. It is suggested that one should ―take full account of the company‘s environment before drawing up any plans.‖ However, this is not easy to do. At this point, it is important to remember that society, of which public administration is an integral part, has been in constant change. The Philippines is a developing country. It is a changing society. It exists in a pragmatic, result-oriented environment. So, as it changes, the ecology of public administration also changes. As its ecology changes, public administration must concede such developments by generating changes within itself. This will, of course, necessarily generate changes in the government. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson students should be able to: 1. Discuss the ecology of public administration 2. Enumerate the environmental factors that influence public administration. LESSON OUTLINE THE ADMINISTRATOR’S ATTITUDES ON ENVIRONMENT Some social scientists claim that the environment significant impact or effect on the administrative process. 49 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department If public administration is to survive at all, it must accept developments in its environment. If this is not possible, it becomes the task of the administrator to:  Control the organization Administrator must evolve a kind of organizational system that either complement or supplants its own character with its environment.  Preserve the status quo in the organization Administrator would not accept the concept of change for it develops him a certain degree of uncertainty. This is one instance in organization where the leadership of the administrator is put to test. Whether the ecology of public administration will be an asset or a liability to the organization depends primarily on the attitudes of the administrator toward it. Of course, his attitude will be governed, in certain degrees by his perception of the situation. These things may indicate that if ecology is properly managed, it could be then an effective instrument of administration in facilitating the accomplishment of its organizational goals. If not, it could be an administrative constraint or organizational pressure to its operations and management. ECOLOGY AND ADMINISTRATIVE EFFECTIVENESS An organization must be designed in full recognition of the rapid and dramatic changes in its environment. Certainly, such developments affect the way the organization performs its assigned tasks. As a result, the organizational values and traditions are subjected to pressures of change. More than ever, to be effective the organization must permit itself to perform a kind of balancing its ethos and that of its environment. Only in this way, could it be expected to meet the challenges of the fast changing world. 50 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department By constantly adjusting to its environment, particularly the forces of change, public administration shall be in a better position to serve the changing requirements of its people. Considering that public administration is an organization by itself, by necessity it must reflect the culture and values of its environment. If this cannot be done, its alternative is to change it. Both situations, however, call for flexibility on its part as it relates itself with its environment. It is noteworthy to consider that this situation calls for the administrator‘s greater determination to tackle it. Certainly, its result can trigger a chain of reactions affecting the entire organization. FACTORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINS There‘s no other way whereby the administrator could escape from the influences of the external environmental forces for his organization, except for his organization to control it. The organization‘s external factors can be classified as follows and these will be called constrains for they are factors to be overcome by the administrator in attaining the goals of the organization.  Educational Constraint For this, the development of certain level of education in the country, particularly those pertaining to the development of management skills, has an important impact on the pace of economic progress the organization is capable of undertaking. In fact, this problem is not only limited to the intervention of organization‘s external forces, but also on the country‘s total national socio-economic development program. In other words, an administrator must perceive the significant elements in any management situation. He should, by then, be capable to act in any given way to advance the organization toward attaining its goals. To do that, he must possess the ability to perceive any changes that will happen within the environment of his organization. Only in this 51 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department manner can he be capable of gearing the activities of his organization along such developments.  Legal Political Constraint Most organizations, if not all, are governed by laws that are extremely complicated. These laws usually apply to personnel administration. While these laws were designed to guide the administrator in the management of the organization, in some instances, they hamper the attainment of its administrative efficiency. In other words, the administrator cannot apply these laws to many of his administrative problems. Administration is not only based on laws but also on human relations. It requires therefore, knowledge about people to make legality practicable.  Socio-Cultural Constraint Talingdan observes that the Filipino people are a conglomeration of different customs, idiosyncrasies and habits. By this, it is shown that the social relationships of the Filipinos are quite complicated. The administrator must fully consider these characteristics of his people in planning, as well as in implementing, his programs. Organization has its own culture. This culture must be fully known and understood by the administrator. R.N. Farmer and B.M. Richman identify a large number of factors that pronounced the behavior, as well as the tie of relationship between the administrator and subordinates. These factors are as follows: 1. The general attitude of the society towards managers; 2. The dominant views of authority and subordinates; 3. The extent to which cooperation between various group is a way of life; 4. The view of achievement; 52 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department 5. The extent of inflexible class structure and individual class structure and individual mobility; 6. The view of scientific method; 7. The view of risk; and 8. The view of change. Moreover, due to varying beliefs, values or cultures of the people, these factors, many social scientists claim, could either contribute to the building of the constructive atmosphere or to the failure of administration. Certainly, many administrators agreed that studying the culture of the place is an important responsibility. In fact, it is a pre requisite to understanding their subordinates and the people their organization dealt with. The customs, traditions, and values of the local people need to be understood as well as to be duly respected.  Economic Constraint Economic stability is a significant economic variable. It is accepted by many that money is the lifeblood of any organization. By that alone, it is clear that it is an important economic environmental factor. In preparing the development plans of the organization, the administrator is required to commit, by necessity, not only the financial resources of the organization but also its other resources. Here, he is forced to be guided only by the limited data on the economic conditions of his environment. Utilization of production factors, as Koontz and O‘Donnell point out, is also an economic environmental matter of great significance. He should, therefore, consider production factors, such as factor endowment, the extent of which a country has available natural resources, adequate and useful labor, capital which can be employed 53 | P a g e SKSU Tacurong Campus, Political Science Department for efficient production, or the extent to which social overhead capital is available. That is, the supply and q

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