Reviewer for Philosophy PDF

REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY Lesson: Distinguishing a Holistic e understand of a ing of a person Perspective from a Partial Point of View situation Perspective...

REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY Lesson: Distinguishing a Holistic e understand of a ing of a person Perspective from a Partial Point of View situation Perspective Evaluates Being - Is a way of looking at a beliefs critical situation or a fact based on and to all true relations and relative principles perspectiv importance. thoroughly e before reaching a consensus Partial Point of View - Is the way of assessing a situation using a particular Philosophical Perspectives point of view based on personal - Worldviews which try to define beliefs and experiences. the nature of life, the world, the relationship of individuals Holistic Perspective to the world and its parts. - Is the way of assessing a situation using all angles Lesson: Recognizing Human Activities possible and weighing each perspective for the best answer. that Emanated from Deliberate Reflection Deliberate Reflection - Is the conscious and intentional Pros Cons reflection of the relationship of our thoughts, knowledge, and Partial Can make Limited beliefs to our surroundings. Point of faster understand View decisions ing of BUDDHA other perspectiv Siddharta Gautama is better e about an known as Buddha. He established issue Buddhism in the 5th century which is now one of the biggest Give a Possible religions in the world. specific bias & set of prejudices Through meditation and guidelines deliberate reflection, he was for able to understand the everyday relationship of man to his life surroundings. - Moreover, through a deliberate Holistic Can give a Takes time Perspectiv deeper and effort reflection of human actions, he Aria  REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY realized that the purpose of Philosophy man is to end sufferings in ➔ is the study of the fundamental this world and reach Nirvana. ideas about knowledge, truth, morality, and human nature by SOCRATES exercising reason and logic in Socrates (470-399 BC) is questioning existing theories, considered as one of the beliefs, and laws about life as greatest Greek philosophers. well as answer issues and However, he left no written problems that science and arts accounts of his teachings. He could not provide answers with. was also executed for engaging ➔ Philo = love, Sophia= wisdom; the youths in an intellectual Therefore, philosophy = love of discourse. wisdom Socratic method is the style of inquiry that Socrates used. This Branches of Philosophy method involved a continuous Metaphysics pattern of asking questions ★ is the study of the fundamental until a contradiction or flaw is nature of reality and the found. nature which sciences still Its purpose is to distinguish cannot answer. mistaken beliefs from the Thales, a Greek truth. philosopher, thought that everything is made up of DESCARTES water. From the clouds to Descartes (1596-1650) is ice cubes to the human considered as the Father of body, everything consists Western Philosophy. water. Descartes used the process of Heraclitus argued that doubting in order to reach for from chaos comes life and the only thing that he cannot oneness. Opposites produce doubt anymore, which is the life which are unified by ability of thinking. a system of balanced Cogito ergo sum - I think exchanges. therefore I am. Epistemology ★ is the branch of philosophy Realizing the Value of Doing Philosophy that is concerned with the in Obtaining a Broad Perspective on Life nature, sources, and limits of knowledge. Aria  REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY ★ Take note that wishful thinking ❖ Rationalism is based on a and lucky guesses are not posteriori statements and considered knowledge. deductive reasoning ★ Reasoning is used in the ➔ A posteriori knowledge are construction of valid arguments propositions which are using logic and fact. only knowable through ➔ Inductive reasoning is the experience. type of reasoning which uses multiple premises to Ethics support the truthfulness is the branch of philosophy of the conclusion. concerned with the nature of Specific instances to values, principles, and general conclusion. behaviors. It tries to give a ➔ Deductive reasoning is the concrete guideline for the type of reasoning that people to understand what is develops from a general right from wrong. principle to specific Ethics is different from moral conclusion. conduct. Ethics uses both reason and evidence. Empiricism ❖ Empiricism is the theory that Problems that Ethics try to solve: all true knowledge can only be 1. Moral authority - blindly attained through sense- acceptance of an ideology, experience. norm, principle, or behavior ❖ Empiricism is based on a priori statements and inductive 2. Moral relativism - the instance reasoning. when right and wrong is ➔ A priori knowledge are relative to a person or a propositions which are culture. independent of any experience and uses logic Lesson: Doing a Philosophical Reflection and reason. on a concrete situation from a Holistic Point of Rationalism ❖ Rationalism is the theory that View all true knowledge are based on Holistic Perspective logic, laws, and methods that Holism suggests that the proper reason develops. way of rendering observation and analysis is through a Aria  REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY general view of the subject or 4. Ask yourself object in question. Viewing actions in a general, 2nd Categorical Imperative encompassing, and holistic way "Act as to treat humanity both in enables one to measure any your own person and in the person of action's large-scale effect. every other, always at the same time as an end, never simply as a means.” Immanuel Kant: The Categorical Imperatives ★ Kant's second categorical ➔ Immanuel Kant is a German imperative is a profound way of philosopher that is among the using a holistic perspective on greatest minds that constituted things. One identifies the self the era of Modern Philosophy. and others as all alike in as ➔ Kant is arguably the most much as another must not be prominent in the field of treated as instrumental to ethics, as his duty ethics achieving some other desired characterized by the principle good. of universalization is easily ★ The 1st and 2nd Categorical one of the most remarkable imperatives’ relationship is frameworks developed in the considered “bi-conditional” said field. where both the imperatives function in the presence of 1st Categorical Imperative each other. Any decisions that "Act only on that maxim by which you satisfies both the imperatives can, at the same time will that it can be considered true. should be a universal law.” Opinion Universalizing are propositions based on - conceptualizing something to be personal belief, view, or true in all situations. This judgement that cannot be process tends to provide a more verified with evidence. encompassing and clearer often personal interpretations. understanding of the general also called as value judgement. meaning of an action. Opinions are subjective because they are mind-dependent Steps: - Since opinions are 1. Formulate a maxim subjective to person to 2. Universalize the maxim person, cannot be proven 3. Imagine a world with that kind to be true or false. of maxim Aria  REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY - What is true for one Logical Reasoning person is not always true - Logic or reason is composed of to another because they principles that govern the have different beliefs. validity of arguments and Opinions are normative assumptions statements because they give - Logical reasoning uncovers evaluations and suggestions for possible biases and prejudices particular situations. of an argument. It also Opinions based on feelings are distinguishes inconsistency and plausible because emotions can incoherence in one's argument cloud one's reasoning that can or opinion. lead to false judgments. Validity/Strength Fact deductive reasoning is a proposition on statement inductive reasoning that can be verified through Soundness empirical evidences. truth table Facts are difficult to be logically disputed or rejected. Determining the Truth Value of Facts Facts are objective because Deductive Reasoning their value is not dependent on - Deductive reasoning is the type one's personal beliefs, biases of reasoning that proceeds from and prejudices. general premise to a specific Facts are considered true when conclusion. they are validated using logical reasoning (e.g. solving Deductive Reasoning: Validity math equations). - Validity is the logical connection between the premises Tools in Distinguishing Truth and and the conclusion of a Opinion deductive argument. Critical Thinking - In a valid argument, when the - is the method of suspending premises are assumed as true, beliefs and judgements in order the conclusion must also be to distinguish facts and assumed as true opinions. - is a careful, intentional Inductive Reasoning thinking that uses reason and - makes broad generalization out logic in assessing judgments of specific instances or and beliefs. observations. Aria  REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY Inductive Reasoning: Strength understanding or analyzing - it is difficult to check the concepts, ideas, knowledge, etc validity of inductive It is a way of pursuing reasoning. Since inductive knowledge in a specified and reasoning counts the number of controlled way and identifying instances or observations that this pursuit's direction and support a specific conclusion, end goal. it can only tell whether an argument is strong or weak. The End Goal of Philosophy ★ Philosophy, as a pursuit of Soundness knowledge, essentially seeks - is the property of statements out wisdom and truth. and arguments that are both ★ When philosophizing, value is valid and true. placed upon the process of - As mentioned earlier, only searching for knowledge as well deductive arguments can be as the "awareness" of its tested by their soundness. possible end Truth Table Philosophical Method a diagram that pose rows and - a way of thinking over columns of possible combinations philosophical problems. of propositions and how their - Philosophy is often concerned truth or falsity affect all of with "problems of experience": their components, especially Existence their conclusion. Soul Reality Realizing That the Methods of Philosophy Truth god Lead to Wisdom and Truth Philosophical Method vs Methodology Philosophical Theory is a set of methods, procedures, ★ Philosophical method is not a and techniques that help in: philosophical theory. We use a.) validating, clarifying, and methods to arrive at a theory. justifying existing knowledge In essence, a theory is a and; conclusion and a method is the b.) establishing new knowledge. procedure or principles to be contains important and followed to come up with a particular methods, rules, and conclusion. ideas which are used in Aria  REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY Cartesian Method - The Socratic Method uses the - is what Descartes chose to use process of questioning to bring to select truths that according out the truth in the mind. to him should be clear, Symbo Name Meaning distinct, and intuitively l known. - This method includes three main ~ Negation negate / opposite of processes: doubt, intuition, premise and deduction. ^ Conjunctio And, both The Four Rules of Cartesian Method: n premises 1. To never accept anything as true should be true unless it is without doubt. 2. To divide each problem to as many v Disjunctio Or, at least parts as possible. n one of the 3. To begin with the simplest issues premise is and proceed step by step to the more true complex. → Conditiona Uses the 4. To enumerate all of its parts and l premise it review them all to make sure nothing points to to was omitted or left out. determine the Pragmatic Method proposition, if-then - value and truth can be determined through the ↔ bi-concdit If and only practical consequences and ional if, the same usefulness of ideas and beliefs. nature of - Pragmatism opposes absolutes, proposition ultimates, and fixed principles; it supposes that Lesson Evaluating Own Limitations and everything is relative and knowledge comes from may Possibilities for Their Transcendence perspectives and will always be Transcendence plural. ➔ This means surpassing the Socratic Method physical experience or going - Socrates' dialectic method is a past or beyond all others. dialogue which aims to seek the ➔ Philosophers define this as a truth or gain knowledge through reality that is beyond one’s the systematic use of question consciousness and answer. Aria  REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY Western Philosophy “The soul is superior to the Plato body. The soul rules the body.” Plato thought that there are The body is the reflection of two different worlds that exist the soul. parallel from one another. Augustine was an African These are the intelligible theologian known for his world (world of Forms) and the interpretation of the Christian sensible world (material thoughts based on the Platonic world). and Neoplatonic teachings. The World of Forms is infinite and unchanging. Augustine: Free will The Material World is The grace of God gave the soul changeable and unreliable. to humans to administer the Therefore, we cannot be slaves body according to its free of what we can perceive in this will. world. We need to find the The human free will desires to Truth that can only be found live upright and honorable through philosophizing. lives and to attain the highest wisdom. Aristotle He also believes that aside Perfection from the physical objects that Augustine believed that it is we can sense in this world, possible for the human life to these objects are be perfected as long as they representations of their are morally responsible and perfect forms but these will follow the eternal laws representations exist within set by God. them. Aristotle believed that there Thomas Aquinas: Reason is only one world but the forms Thomas Aquinas argued the main exist within the physical difference among plants, objects. animals, and human beings is These forms are being shared by that human beings are given the the objects that reflect their function of reason or intellect essence. to understand the truth of life. Augustine Humans can only understand the Augustine believed that an knowledge of God through individual human being is a reason. "body-soul" composite. Aria  REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY Aquinas explained that reason has The limitations of all living two parts: beings is rooted from one's 1. The cognitive is the intellect bodily desires and weaknesses. that enables the people to know Buddhists think that to reach and understand. enlightenment, a person must 2. The appetitive is the will that understand the 4 noble truths makes the people desire to which talks about the four understand the good. realities of life. Hinduism 4 NOBLE TRUTHS It believes that human beings 1. life is suffering (life have two natures such as the includes pain, getting old, spiritual and immortal essence disease, and ultimately death) (soul) and the physical life 2. suffering is caused by craving (body). and aversion Hindus believe that the main 3. suffering can be overcome by purpose of life is to seek the true happiness and affinity to truth and reach the Brahman or the world Atman (Absolute Soul). 4. he Noble 8-fold Path is the The primary limitation of the path which leads to the end of living beings for Hinduism is suffering the process of rebirth of samsara. EIGHTFOLD PATH Salvation from samsara is Right Understanding called moksha. Moksha is the Right Intention escape from the impermanence Right Speech that is an inherent feature of Right Action life. Right Action Right Effort Buddhism Right Mindfulness Buddhism came from the word Right Concentration "Bodhi" which means "to awaken". Many Buddhists claim that Lesson: Recognizing How the Human Buddhism is not a religion but Body Imposes Limits and Possibilities for a philosophy of life. Buddhists perceives Buddha as Transcendence the "Great Teacher" and the Augustine: Limitations of the Will enlightened one. For Augustine, the union of the body and the soul composes the Aria  REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY nature of the men. However, the immortal Truth dwells. soul administers or governs the Therefore, the eternal law, body since the body is subject which was entailed in the Truth to corruption and sin. was given by the Divine Augustine, claimed that the Authority to the soul. soul acts upon the body through the "instrumentality" of the Thomas Aquinas: Limitations of Human brain Aquinas believed that people The body dies when it is inherited the sin of the their separated from the soul first parent, Adam. This is the reason why the human body has Augustine: Evil been corrupted by sin since For Augustine, evil is a then. natural phenomenon that occurs The human body is deprived of from the human will. goodness because of the evil Evil exists as a consequence of Moreover, even if men has the man's exercise of his free gift of reason, the ability of will. men to gain knowledge is Human is less reliable than the limited. divine authority because human human beings should exercise authority is subject to error. their reason properly to achieve human goodness. Augustine: Possibility of We also need God's help to Transcendence restore the goodness of our The possibility for the nature. transcendence of man could be attributed to the human soul Hinduism that God gave to men. According to the Bhagavad Gita, "The human soul is a living, the human body is perishable. incorporeal, spiritual, rational It is subject to decay, substance, which is vitally and sickness, and death. potentially present in the body The body is only a projection as the principle of all its of nature and illusory. operations". Whoever desires virtue, wealth, However, the soul administers and other bodily pleasures are the body virtually and perishable and is bound to potentially. The soul never suffer. dies. Hinduism advises those who want The human soul is immortal to repent from his or her because this is where the desires for material wealth and Aria  REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY bodily pleasures to undergo Aesthetics: Plato ascetic discipline to In several writings of Plato, completely free themselves from he associated proportion to the notion that the world is beauty. the reality. He implied such statement by saying that what lack symmetry Lesson: Noticing Things That Are and proportion lacks beauty. Not in Their Proper Place and Aesthetics: Functionality or Purpose Teleology is a way of Organize Them in an Aesthetic Way identifying and explaining the Aesthetics reasons of existence or came from the word occurrence of a thing through "aisthetikos", a Greek term referencing its purpose. which translates to "perception This leads us to refer to one by the senses". of the most prominent theories evaluation of things using the on teleology known to man that sense", into the more specific of Aristotle. term "beauty". According to Aristotle, "arete" is the will to act in Aesthetics: Proportion accordance to one's nature; Proportion is often referred to this action is also the mean of as the correspondence and the actions of deficiency and harmony of forms such as size, excess. shape, and organization. Arete is often referred to as It is often used virtue achieved through interchangeably with the term excellence. Virtue, when symmetry. achieved, lead to happiness. And happiness is the end-goal Aesthetics: Pythagoras of every human life. Pythagoras and his followers explained beauty through Aesthetics: Life and Vitality numbers. Friedrich Nietzsche associates They believed that beauty is beauty with vitality. best exhibited by harmony and His belief that anything proportion of numbers. beautiful is something that reminds one of the youth of life. Aria  REVIEWER FOR PHILOSOPHY 2. Social Ecology Lesson: Showing That Care for the Social Ecology understands Environment Contributes to Health, the interactions of the social, institutional, and Well-Being and Sustainable Development cultural contexts of the Environmental Ethics relationship of the people Environmental Ethics is to the nature. It analyzes concerned with the relationship the "interdependence" of of human beings with their social systems from one environment. It is concerned another. with the understanding on how 3. Ecofeminism should human beings align their Ecofeminism perceives the actions and behaviors to connection between the morally grounded principles. exploitation and degradation of the natural Anthropocentrism world and the Anthropocentrism believes that subordination and any action must be done in high oppression of women by the consideration of its effects on patriarchal society. man. Biocentrism Biocentrism holds that the moral worth of actions depend upon its effects on any life form, and not necessarily on man. Other Environmental Ethical Principles 1. Deep Ecology: Ecocentrism Ecocentrism is an ethical principle that acknowledges the intrinsic value of the natural world that debunks the idea that the human beings own everything and has authority over it. Aria