Reviewer - Philosophy 1st Quarter

**REVIEWER** Traditionally philosophy is defined as love of wisdom because it came from two Greek words philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom). **DEFINING PHILOSOPHY** \- It studies reasoning skills and different theories about the nature of reality, morality, society, justice, religious beliefs, an...

**REVIEWER** Traditionally philosophy is defined as love of wisdom because it came from two Greek words philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom). **DEFINING PHILOSOPHY** \- It studies reasoning skills and different theories about the nature of reality, morality, society, justice, religious beliefs, and knowledge among others. It is in this city that the first philosopher in the West, Thales, lived. **Thales** is the Father of Philosophy in the Western civilization. **BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY** **Metaphysics-** studies existence as such and philosophical anthropology which deals with the fundamental and essential characteristics of human nature (Gotthelf and Salmieri, 2015). **Epistemology-** Studies the nature and means of human knowledge. Concerns the nature of human knowledge and the way to obtain it. (revelation, intuition, and reason) **Ethics**- According to Ayn Rand ethics or morality provides a human being with a "code of values to guide man's choices and actions - the choices and actions that determine the course of his life (Rand, 1964)." **Politics-** According to Ayn Rand politics defines the principles of a \"proper social system." According to Rand "proper" means proper for human beings which presupposes that one knows what a human being is. **Aesthetics-** studies the nature of art. It is concerned with the nature and the objective judgement of beauty. **HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE (Holistic thinking)** Looks at all aspects of the given problem or situation. All aspects are given importance when making conclusions. All aspects are tied in together to form a general overview of the problem or situation. Sees the situation in totality. **PARTIAL POINT OF VIEW (Partial thinking)** Looks at only limited number of aspects of the given problem or situation. Conclusions are made based on considering some, but not all sides of the problem or situation. Sees the situation in a restricted, narrow manner. **REFLECTION-** The term "Philosophical reflection" is reserved for contemplation. It involves cognitive processes in which a person thinks about the actions and reactions that enhance knowledge. **PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REFLECTION** **PRIMARY REFLECTION** **-** It is the ability to think logically. It is concerned with definitions, essences and technical solutions to problems**.** **SECONDARY REFLECTION** According to Marcel, this type of reflection **enables us to look deeper into our experiences** and see the bigger picture of reality. **Moral theology employs the STOP sign as guidepost of moral decision making.** **S-** Search out the facts. **T-** Think, reflect and analyse the facts, its negative or positive effects, advantages or disadvantages. **O-**How it affects Others. **P-** Pray **EPISTEMOLOGY** Epistemology is a science devoted to the discovery of the proper method of acquiring and validating knowledge. **Empiricism-** we can acquire knowledge using our senses. We are limited in what we can experience and observe and our senses can deceive us. Moreover, our prior experiences can alter the way we perceive events. Nevertheless, empiricism is at the heart of the scientific method. Science relies on observations. **Rationalism-** We can acquire knowledge by thinking with the use of our minds. Rationalism involves using logic and reasoning to acquire new knowledge. **Process of Acquiring knowledge** **First step**: Reality- To know is to know something. This something is what the philosophers call reality, existence, and being. "Existence is really there is to know. If nothing exists knowledge is impossible." **Second step**: Perception- Our first and only contact with reality is through our senses. The senses give us knowledge of things or entities. **Third step**: Concept- An abstract or generic idea is generalized from particular instances. After we perceive things we began to notice that some of the things we perceive are similar to other things. **Fourth step**: Proposition- A proportion is a statement that expresses either an assertion or a denial (Copi, 2002) that an existent belongs to a class or possesses a certain attribute. **Fifth step**: Inference- *How do we demonstrate that the statement is true?* **By providing an argument.** According to Hurley an argument "is a group of statements, one or more of which (the premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reason to believe one of the others (the conclusion) All men are mortals Pablo is a man. Therefore Pedro is mortal. *An **argument** expresses a reasoning process which logicians call **inference.*** **VALIDATING KNOWLEDGE** - Observation using senses. - Validate your acquired knowledge. - Determine if the statement is true is through consensus. - Determine if the statement is true is to test it through action. **Truth** is knowledge validated and when we say validated, we mean they are based on the facts of reality. **To summarize an opinion has the following characteristics:** 1.Based on emotions 2\. Open to interpretation 3\. Cannot be confirmed 4\. Inherently biased **Truth has the following characteristics:** 1\. Based on the facts of reality 2\. Can be confirmed with other sources 3\. Independent of one's interpretation, preferences and biases **The Allegory of the Cave** -Plato uses the cave as a symbolic representation of how human beings live in the world, contrasting reality versus our interpretation of it. This is the prisoners' belief in the shadows as reality highlights the need for critical thinking when distinguishing between truth and opinion. **THEORIES OF TRUTH** **Correspondence Theory of Truth**- is that what we believe or say is true if it corresponds to the reality or to the way things actually are based on facts. **Coherence Theory of Truth**- It determines whether a belief is true by examining whether the belief coheres with the rules of the relevant system. **Pragmatic Theory of Truth-** states that a belief/statement is true if it has a useful (pragmatic) application in the world. If it does not, then it is not true. **TRUTH IS WHAT IS USEFUL.** **METHODS OF PHILOSOPHISING** The different processes of determining the truth or drawing conclusions from statements using various philosophical methods. - This would equip us with knowledge and skills in acquiring wisdom and truth. 1. **The Dialectic/Socratic Method** - Conceived by Socrates - Socratic Questioning - It is a type of interrogative statement that clarifies points through understanding the deeper meaning of a claim. - Elenchus = \"to inquire\" or \"cross examine\" - Statement Deconstructions & Creative Questioning 2. **The Pragmatic Method** Pragmatists offer no such beliefs. Rather, they seek to make philosophy relevant by solving real life problems. 3. **The Phenomenological Method** The phenomenological method was conceived by Edmund Husserl (born in 1859) According to Husserl, science brings a certain attitude which is counterproductive to the human soul: **the naturalistic attitude** (or simply naturalism). \- The process of learning and constructing the meaning of human experience. To understand the meaning of experience as it lived by the participants. **FALLACY** **Fallacies/ fake arguments**- are a group of statements that appear to be arguments but fail to support the conclusion. Argumentum ad Hominem- This fallacy literally means hitting the person below the belt instead of focusing on the issue at hand. Argumentum ad Traditionem- It asserts that a premise must be true because people have always believed it or done it. It may conclude that the premise has always worked in the past and will always work in the future. Hasty Generalization- This fallacy is committed when one reaches a generalization based on insufficient evidence. Argumentum ad Baculum- This is committed when a person uses threat or force to advance an argument. Argumentum ad Misercordiam- A person uses emotion such as pity to convince someone. What is Human Person? **The human is defined with classified origin of species and persons with birth rights. Human person is someone with an exact origin of his/her classification.** **A human person is typically with a *[body which is tangible]* and has a three components composed of SOUL, MIND and SPIRIT.** **EMBODIED SPIRIT** **Embodied spirit is an animating core living within each of us. It is known to be the driving force behind what we actually think, do and say. It is indeed the reflections of our total being by which our sensations lead to our human feelings, emotions and decision.** There are two general kinds to distinguish a human person: ***The Cognitive Self and the Physical Self.*** - Cognitive self- It **is the essential components of a human persons that deals with THE WHAT OF A PERSON which includes human persons' belief, desire, dreams, and intentions.** - Physical Self **- *(something can be seen in his/her physical appearance)* which deals with the essential features of the human way of life or THE WHO OF A PERSON which includes his/her body type, strength and appearances.** **TRANSCENDENCE** Transcendence comes from the Latin prefix trans-, meaning \"beyond,\" and the word scandare, meaning \"to climb.\" When you achieve transcendence, you have gone beyond ordinary limitations. **Limitation of Transcendences** may not occur to everyone does not come at a specified period may coincide with physical limitations of the body **Possibilities of Transcendences** developing a positive outlook in life working towards reaching a goal learning from experience **THE HUMAN BODY IN IMPOSING LIMITS AND POSSIBILITIES** **Bodily limitation** Mental and emotional disorders (e.g. anxiety, intellectual disability) Disabilities (e.g. amputated leg, deafness) Disease and illnesses (e.g. hypertension, cough) Failures and experiences (e.g. failing a subject) **Social and Environmental limitation** Socioeconomic status location of the neighborhood (e.g. armed, disorganized, or violent neighborhood) abusive relationships (e.g.emotional abuse) negative influences (e.g. drug use **Ways on how to overcome limitations** 1\. Set Clear Goals: Define what you want to achieve, both short-term and long-term. Having clear goals gives you direction and motivation to overcome limitations. 2\. Develop a Growth Mindset: Embrace challenges and setbacks as opportunities for learning and growth. A positive attitude can help you see limitations as temporary obstacles. 3\. Seek Knowledge and Skills: Acquire the knowledge and skills needed to tackle your limitations. Education and training can empower you to overcome barriers. 4\. Build a Support Network: Surround yourself with people who encourage and support your goals. Seek advice and guidance from mentors and peers. 5\. Stay Persistent: Perseverance is often the key to success. Don\'t give up easily, even when faced with challenges. **HUMAN PERSON IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT** **ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY-** Environment philosophy is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the environment and its non-human contents. Philosophers believe that the human person has the ability to change the environment to suit his purposes. **Three approaches to understand our relationship in the environment** **BIOCENTRISM-** Believes that humans are not the only significant species on the planet, and that all other organisms have inherent value and should be protected. This view advocates ethical treatment of animals. **ECOCENTRISM-** This view believes that humankind is a part of the greater biological system or community and that we have significant role as stewards or guardians of nature. This view promotes the idea that order and balance in nature brings about stability and beauty. **ANTHROPOCENTRICISM-** focuses on the significant role of humankind in the world and considers nature as the means by which humans are able to meet their needs and survive. This view believes that humans are the most important species on the planet and they are free to transform nature and use its resources. **ENVIRONMENTAL AESTHETICS** A philosophical view that believes in maintaining order in the environment will bring out the natural beauty of surroundings and contribute to the well-being of the people and other organisms living in it (Endriga, 2017). **Sustainable Development** According to the World Commission on Environment and Development, sustainable development defines as: "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." **Principles of Sustainability** - **Environmental Integrity-** means that any human activities or economic advances should not unduly disrupt the environment and human communities located in the area. - **Economic Efficiency-** This is to ensure that there is minimum to zero waste in using our natural resources (Abella, 2016) - **Equity-** it refers to conserving our natural resources so that the future generations will still be able to use it (Abella, 2016)