Global Politics - Power, Sovereignty, and International Relations PDF

UNIT: Power, Sovereignty and International Relations KEY GLOPO CONCEPTS: (memorise definitions) Power, Sovereignty, Legitimacy, Conflict, Violence, Globalization, Interdependence Power- The ability of one global actor to influence the actions of another global actor. Power can be exercised in a ran...

UNIT: Power, Sovereignty and International Relations KEY GLOPO CONCEPTS: (memorise definitions) Power, Sovereignty, Legitimacy, Conflict, Violence, Globalization, Interdependence Power- The ability of one global actor to influence the actions of another global actor. Power can be exercised in a range of types and forms. Sovereignty- Legitimate or widely recognised ability to exercise effective control of a territory within recognised borders. Primary organising principle of global politics which provides states with the authority to represent their territorial entity within the international community. State sovereignty can be challenged internally (for example, secessionist groups) or externally (for example, one state invades another). Legitimacy- Political legitimacy is the popular acceptance of authority. It is considered to be the basic condition for government, without which it will collapse. Sometimes it only takes a small-influential elite to render a nation legitimate despite the regime being unpopular (syria). Globalisation- Acceleration and intensification of exchanges of goods, services, labour and capital which promote global interdependence. These have been facilitated by rapid changes in communication and technology. Has widespread impacts on social, political, economic and cultural life. Conflict- The dynamic process of actual or perceived opposition between individuals, groups or countries. This could be opposition over positions, interests or values. Most theorists would distinguish between nonviolent and violent conflict. In this distinction, non-violent conflict can be a useful mechanism for social change and transformation, while violent conflict is harmful and asks for conflict resolution. Violence- Often defined as physical or psychological force inflicted upon another being. In the context of global politics it could be seen as anything man made that prevents someone from reaching their full potential (e.g. structural violence). This broader definition would encompass unequal distribution of power and discriminatory practices that exclude entire groups of people from accessing certain resources. Interdependence- For global politics, the concept of interdependence most often refers to the mutual reliance between and among groups, organisations, areas and states for access to goods and services that sustain living arrangements. Often, this mutual reliance is economic (such as trade), but can also have a security dimension (such as defence arrangements) and, increasingly, a sustainability dimension (such as environmental treaties). Globalisation has increased interdependence , while often changing the relationships of power among the various actors engaged in global politics. Theories: Power Sovereignty Liberalism Believe soft-power, cooperation and a rules based Sees sovereignty as one of several principles in international order are the most effective and safest world politics. It is important but not exclusive way of using power in global politics. Liberals and at the expense of other groups or ideas. perceive states as more powerful when they work Sovereignty is not absolute and can be pooled together (i.e through cooperation in international and challenged (when other states fail to organisations. They believe states should use exercise their sovereignty responsibly). power by conforming to a world order governed by international law and respecting human rights. Realism Believe that power politics have to do with states’ Sees sovereignty as an essential feature of hard power capabilities. They see states as locked global politics. Prepared both to defend in competition with each other, with each state sovereignty as an inviolable principle and to wanting to protect its national security against breach the sovereignty of other states if their threats from other states in an anarchic world own national security requires it. View states order. States either pursue offensive realism (i.e are the only legitimate bodies in global politics. aiming to expand their global power) or defensive The interests and right of states to act realism (i.e aiming merely to defend themselves independently and defend their core interests is against external threats prioritised over most other principles and ideas. Definitions Joseph Nye (American political scientist and cofounder of neoliberalism theory) and theories -​ Hard power of power -​ The use of force and threats of force to influence the decision-making of those in charge -​ Soft power -​ Achieving aims through persuasion or influence (i.e the power to get others to want what you want) -​ Lies more in the realm of negotiation, promises of aid, cooperation and other non-military means of influencing change -​ Smart power -​ The combination of hard and soft power – the ability to use both when called for, or one or the other when necessary Eric Wolf (Anthropologist) -​ Structural power -​ Refers to social conditions and the use of labour to maintain social realms John. J Mearshemer -​ Offensive realism Types of Power power -​ The ability to influence other groups in global politics and achieve outcomes. At its simplest, power is about achieving desired goals and influencing others. -​ Power can be used to achieve material gains (i.e agree a trade deal or defeat a terrorist group). It may be used to persuade others to conform to a political/economic idea (i.e states persuading other states to choose a democratic, capitalist model of government/fight corruption) -​ Power is variable → states can become more powerful, whilst others see their power decline. -​ Through IGOs, smaller states can cooperate with other states to become more powerful than they would be alone (multilateral power) -​ Members of NATO may respond collectively (collective power) to security threats by launching military action. -​ Political and economic unions (e.g EU) can establish a single currency zone that aims to maximise their economic power Types of power -​Soft - Power over individuals due to their own wanting to listen to you out of respect, love etc etc, Persuasion or influence CASE STUDY: Tourism in Paris contributes significantly to France's soft power. -​ Eiffel tower and other famous landmarks are known around the world and when people think of them, they are associated with France and thus individuals form a positive opinion about the country. Visitors often return to their home countries with positive experiences, newfound appreciation of French culture and stories to share, thereby spreading the influence of French soft power through word of mouth and social media. -​ The tourism industry also contributes significantly to France's economy, revenue generated from tourism supports a strong economy allowing France to invest in its cultural institutions, education, and other areas that contribute to its overall soft power. -​ CAN SAY SAME THING ABOUT JAPAN -​ Countries like China, with its emphasis on cultural and economic expansion through initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative, have been working to enhance their soft power on the global stage. -​ Hard power -​ Military resources (i.e land, air or sea) are the ultimate means to force another group or state to comply or to change their behaviour. -​ The most powerful states are often thought to be those with the largest armies, the most advanced weapons (comprising nuclear), and the technology/willingness to use this power. (Metrics of Manpower, Budget, Alliances, Nuclear)  -​ It is dangerous to draw firm conclusions about military power from statistics and resources alone. What matter is whether military resources are actually used and whether they are successful when they are used (success should be measured in terms of the objective of the use of military power) -​Economic power – (GDP, GDP per capita, Economic growth %) -​ It is possible for states to seek only economic power (Germany, Japan) however it is unlikely that a state will be a significant military power if it is not also a significant economic power. -​ States can use economic power as a form of hard power. States often impose sanctions on other states to force them to change their behaviour (i.e US sanctions on Iran to reduce its nuclear deal) -​ It’s also possible for states to develop an economic relationship that balances out each state’s economic strengths/weaknesses (i.e China depends on natural resources from Africa, Africa depends on China for FDI in infrastructure). -​ CASE STUDY: RUSSIAN SANCTIONS ✅ -​ Sanction Type 1: Ban on Provision of Technology for Oil and Gas Exploration -​ Effective :This type of sanction can directly impact Russia's energy sector, which is a significant source of revenue for the country. Restrictions on technology for oil and gas exploration can hinder Russia's ability to develop new reserves and maintain current production levels. Over time, this could affect Russia's economic stability and its ability to fund military actions or assert geopolitical influence. -​ Sanction Type 2: Travel Restrictions on Influential Russian Citizens Close to President Putin ✅ and Involved in the Annexation of Crimea -​ Half Effective : Travel restrictions can inconvenience and isolate targeted individuals, making international business dealings more difficult. However, they may not have a significant direct impact on the Russian economy or government policy. The effectiveness of such sanctions depends on the influence and importance of the targeted individuals. If they hold key positions or have significant assets abroad, travel restrictions can be more effective, however sanctioning every tom dick and harry that tries to travel is simply a waste of time. (USUALLY THEY FREEZE THE PERSON'S ASSETS TOO) -​ Structural power – the means by which states affect global politics, usually by promoting a model of politics that they favour, such as democracy or capitalism. -​ Some states may wish to push others towards a more democratic, capitalist, free market economic model (i.e the ideological struggle between capitalist and communist models of economic development). -​ In recent times, Western powers have tried to remove authoritarian regimes and build up the democratic models of government (i.e regime change in Iraq, Libya, Afghanistan) through hard military power and regime change. -​ Relational power (SMART POWER) is when a state has a relationship with another state and uses this relationship to influence the other state to change its behaviour; using military, economic, hard, soft power or a combination of such. -​ To be successful, the state will need an effective strategy, and must know the other state’s strengths/weaknesses to know what would be a convincing threat. -​ Three types of relational power (Nye)  -​ Threats and rewards – likely to encourage the state to achieve their desired goal -​ Controlling the agenda – limiting the choices of the other state in order to achieve the desired goal -​ Establishing preferences – getting the other state to want the same goals as your state -​ Social and cultural power – globalisation has given rise for some states to export their cultural resources across the world. -​ Global brands (e.g Simpsons, Facebook, BBC, Apple) are universally known and popular. However, it’s difficult to know whether this brand popularity has any soft power benefit for the states from which the brand originates -​ Just because BBC is popular in Pakistan, it does not mean that the UK is perceived positively -​ Thus, cultural power connects diverse populations around the world at a more human, rather than strategic, level SOVEREIG Primary actors are individuals, behaviour of people changes how trends in world unfold NTY Individuals also join groups to enhance security and welfare, also exert greater influence Sovereignty = states ability to rule itself Ability to exercise supreme control over what happens within their borders Internal - ability of a state to exert legitimate control over population and manage affairs independent, full responsibility for and power over what happens within borders External - when states are recognised as independent and sovereign by other state Pooled - combined sovereignty of two or more states, gains access to greater power and influence than state/national Responsible - the idea that state sovereignty is conditional upon how well it treats its citizens, based on belief that the states authority arises ultimately from popular sovereignty The evolving Nation state nature of -​ The result of a complex division of labour and exchange relationships – it is a political and territorial state entity sovereignty -​ “Nation” implies that there is a common ethnicity and cultural characteristics (i.e language) -​ “State” most often refers to the sovereign nature of the area in which a state has been formed -​ States are classified as sovereign if they are independent entities not controlled by other territories or entities -​ In order for sovereignty to exist, there has to be an agreement within the nation’s population that the state is legitimate and the holders of the will of the people Westphalian Sovereignty -​ A state’s sovereignty is dependent on other states recognizing the state as a state -​ This idea originates from classical Rome and Medieval Europe. The Treaty of Westphalia (1648) can be seen as the point where the ideas of statehood were formally established. -​ The principle of sovereignty has been supported through putting ideas such as diplomacy and non-intervention into practice. -​ Groups such as the Islamic State may call themselves a state, but if no other states or international organisations recognize them, they cannot be considered a sovereign state. International legitimacy is essential in order for a state to be considered an independent sovereign country. Features of Sovereign Nations – Montevideo Convention (1933) -​ A permanent population -​ Do people live in a permanent place? Is the population fixed? Refugees? -​ A defined territory and borders -​ Do the ICJ and international law agree on state borders? Identifiable borders on a map? -​ Effective government -​ Does a government exist? Does it have full authority and control over its territory? -​ The capacity and legitimacy to enter relations with other states -​ Does the state have diplomatic relations (i.e summits, IGO memberships, bilateral/multilateral partnerships)? The Montevideo Convention is used to determine whether a nation is a sovereign state, however there are many challenges to this method as some non-state groups conform to some of the above features Present-day status of sources of sovereignty -​ In modern global politics, the UN is the key international body which agrees the legitimacy of state borders and makes rulings on borders that are contested -​ → being recognized as a full member state of the UN is the ultimate confirmation of independent statehood -​ At an international level, where borders or sovereignty are disputed, the resolutions of the UNSC and decisions of the ICJ are important statements of international law -​ Rulings from both institutions however are sometimes ignored -​ At a national level, states and regions seeking independence often hold a referendum, in which the population votes directly on whether it should become independent -​ (i.e Scotland voting against becoming an independent state, Catalonia wanting to secede from Spain) Present-day challenges to state sovereignty -​ There has been much debate about the evolution and declining importance of the state, given the interactions of trade and challenges to centralised law, such as supranationality, humanitarian intervention, indigenous rights, and social movements -​ However, competing stakeholders keep the politics of states in motion  State sovereignty becoming less significant State sovereignty still significant Permeable borders Myth of borderless world -​ The traditional guarantee of territorial sovereignty -​ The image that world politics is dominated by (borders), are permeable in that they have increasingly transnational processes that elude state control is an been penetrated by external forces exaggeration -​ States are affected by issues that cross borders -​ Globalising trends do not disempower states. (transnational issues) like climate change, global States choose to engage in the global terrorism, and migration economy and do so for reasons of national self-interest -​ Borders still define independent states. States still decide their own economic and political policies, within their borders. Economic globalisation Economic policy -​ Many states are reducing barriers to trade and are -​ Importing, exporting, tax, trade partnerships are still joining trade agreements (TPP, EU). There is increasing decided by nation states. MNCs are undoubtedly freedom of movement for people and goods. powerful, but resolving major economic crises requires -​ MNCs are also very powerful, and can action by nation states. influence states to change their economic -​ 2008 financial collapse was resolved by policies in return for investment states and IGOs → bailing out failing multinational banks IGOs States choose to join IGOs -​ Are becoming more numerous and more powerful. One -​ States choose to join IGOs and are the key contributors of the most powerful organisations, the EU, has to IGOs. There is no world governing body with the supranational powers and can make laws/enforce them power to act above the nation-state level. Many IGOs on its member states allow states the right to veto and protect core national -​ Other IGOs recognize that states face shared interests challenges and try to resolve these through -​ Most IGOs are intergovernmental, where collective action decisions are reached by consensus of the member state Collective dilemmas States remain dominant -​ Issues that are particularly taxing because they -​ Although states are merely one actor amongst many on confound even the most powerful states when acting the world stage, they remain the most important actor. alone (i.e global problems require global solutions) States exercise power in a way and to an extent that no -​ An increasing range of issues have acquired a other actor can collective/global character (i.e climate -​ Using the administrative processes of change, terrorism, transnational crime, government and relying on unchallengeable pandemic disease) coercive power, their control over what -​ Need to be tackled by IGOs happens within their borders is rarely challenged. -​ Failed states are an exception International human rights Enduring attraction of the nation-state -​ International conventions like the R2P no longer regard -​ There seems little likelihood that states will lose their state sovereignty as absolute, but rather conditional for dominance so long as they continue to enjoy the states who behave responsibly. allegiance of the majority of their citizens. -​ This is based on the view that human rights, -​ As most states are nation-states, this is and the idea that the fundamental individual ensured by the survival of nationalism, as the rights are morally superior to the state’s right world’s most potent ideological force. to independence and autonomy Legitimacy of Legitimacy of state power (i.e how states organise themselves and manage their internal sovereignty) state power -​ Democratic states -​ Democracy is the most common model of state government. This means that governments are elected by a free and fair process – where every member of the adult population is able to vote freely for the representative they choose, without intimidation, interference and with every vote counting equally. -​ There is no single model of a democratic state. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses, each distributes power and ensures accountability within the state in different ways. -​ In states that are not democracies, the governments generally need to use authoritarian means to control their territory. This means that the government is not elected or accountable to the population, and people have no means of influencing or removing the government  -​ Federal states -​ In federal states, there is a government, usually in the capital city, which has central power over some policy (i.e foreign policy). Beyond this, there are governments at a subnational level which have the power to make and enforce the law. -​ The US is a federal system of government. Individual states have the power to decide and enforce their own, different laws (i.e some states have the death penalty). -​ Unitary states -​ In unitary states, the central government has greater control and authority over what happens within its territory. Most decisions and laws are decided by a national legislature (i.e national elected parliament). -​ In the UK, Scotland has its own parliament and can make its own laws in certain areas. These powers are delegated by the legislature and could be restored back to the national parliament. -​ Fragile states -​ May be democratic or undemocratic, but the defining feature is that the state’s internal sovereignty and power is weak. The government may be non-existent, illegitimate, or just too weak to have authority over its territory -​ The central government in Somalia had no power over large parts of its country during the civil war. The war prevented elections from being held and there was an almost total collapse of the government’s power to keep law/order and provide public services (i.e health/education) -​ Authoritarian states -​ In states where there is no democracy, the government is not elected and governs with authority that cannot be challenged, held to account or influenced by its population. Leaders remain in power for as long as they wish, or until they are removed by means such as a military coup, foreign intervention or popular uprising. -​ Human rights abuses are likely to be widespread and the rule of law is not respected -​ Monarchy -​ Governed by a hereditary monarchy or royal family, which is unelected but has gained its authority through generations of rule by the family. -​ Monarchies differ greatly, some have more of a symbolic role (i.e England), while others have greater political control (i.e ruling family in Saudi Arabia). -​ Theocracy -​ Meaning literally ‘rule or government by religion’ theocracy is where power is held by religious groups, rather than non-religious political parties -​ Ruling Shura council in Saudi Arabia has the power to make and enforce Saudi’s Sharia oe Islamic law, alongside the countries ruling monarchy Case studies of Contested Sovereignty South China Sea A Brief overview The South China Sea conflict is a result of competing territorial claims over territory in the South China Sea among multiple countries. China's expansive attitude and territorial claims, notably its Nine-Dash Line, which basically encompasses most of the South China Sea basically is them claiming to own the South China Sea, and China violates maritime laws to aggressively try and control the area, sparking tensions amongst its neighbouring countries. Background And Historical Context/timeline 1947: The Nine-Dash Line: -The Republic of China (now Taiwan) issued a map known as the "Nine-Dash Line," claiming sovereignty over most of the South China Sea. 1970s - 1980s: -Territorial Claims Emerge: Several countries, including Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei, began asserting territorial claims over various islands, reefs, and features in the South China Sea. -led to increasing tensions as overlapping claims emerged. 1974: Paracel Islands Occupation: China occupied the Paracel Islands after a naval clash with Vietnam, leading to Vietnamese casualties and further intensifying regional tensions. 1988: Spratly Islands Conflict: -A naval skirmish between China and Vietnam -resulted in casualties on both sides and further fueled territorial disputes. CONTEXT Reasons for conflict (in recent times) ​ Territorial disputes ​ Resource competition ​ Freedom of navigation ​ Military Buildup ​ International law China: Objectives: 1. Sovereignty and Territorial Claims: China's core goal is to assert sovereignty over nearly the entire South China Sea, as demarcated by its Nine-Dash Line. 2. Resource Control:China wants to control the natural resources such as fisheries, oil, and natural gas reserves 3.Strategic Dominance: Wants to control strategic waterways in the region to exert influence over regional and international maritime trade. Strategies: 1. Island-Building: constructed artificial islands on reefs and features in the South China Sea to serve both military and civilian purposes. 2. Naval Presence: patrolling and defending its claims 3. Economic Agreements: Signed economic agreements with some neighbouring countries to exploit resources jointly, thereby increasing its influence. 4. Diplomatic Engagement: China also engages in diplomatic negotiations to manage tensions and gain international support for its position. Vietnam: Objectives: 1. Sovereignty and Territorial Claims: Asserts sovereignty over some islands in the South China Sea, particularly the Spratly and Paracel Islands. 2. Resource Access: Vietnam seeks to secure access to the region's fisheries and potential oil and gas reserves. 3. National Security: Ensuring the protection of its maritime interests and sovereignty is a top priority for Vietnam. Strategies: 1. Infrastructure Development: Vietnam has constructed facilities on some of the islands it claims, enhancing its presence in the region. 2. Diplomatic Efforts: Vietnam actively engages in diplomatic negotiations and has sought international support 3. Legal Action: Use of international law, including the UNCLOS, to resolve disputes and expressed support for the 2016 tribunal ruling in favour of the Philippines. Taiwan: Objectives: 1. Sovereignty and Territorial Claims: Taiwan maintains territorial claims in the South China Sea as it has historically. Strategies: 1. Island Maintenance: Taiwan maintains its presence on Itu Aba (Taiping) Island, the largest natural feature in the Spratly Islands. 2. Diplomacy: Engage diplomatically with countries in the region and international organisations to maintain its position and garner support for its claims. Philippines: Objectives: 1. Sovereignty and Territorial Claims: Seeks to assert its sovereignty over features in the South China Sea, particularly in the Spratly Islands. 2. Legal Recognition: The Philippines aims to gain international recognition of its claims, reinforced by the 2016 tribunal ruling. (Refer to Hague Ruling) - Philippines won but China did not acknowledge Strategies: 1. Legal Action: The Philippines took its case to an international tribunal, which ruled in its favour in 2016, but China rejected the ruling. The Philippines continues to pursue a rules-based approach to dispute resolution. 2. Bilateral Negotiations: The Philippines engages in bilateral talks with China to manage tensions and promote peaceful solutions. Malaysia: Objectives: 1. Sovereignty and Territorial Claims: Assert its sovereignty over certain features in the South China Sea in the southern part of the Spratly Islands. 2. Resource Access: Malaysia aims to secure access to the region's fisheries and potential energy resources. Strategies: 1. Diplomacy: Malaysia prefers diplomatic means to address the disputes and has avoided confrontations with China. 2. Resource Exploration: Malaysia has engaged in resource exploration activities within its EEZ and disputed areas. Brunei: Objectives: 1. Resource Access: Brunei seeks to ensure access to the potentially resource-rich areas within its maritime territory in the South China Sea. Strategies: 1. Neutrality: Brunei maintains a cautious and neutral stance in the disputes, emphasising peaceful resolution through diplomacy. Indonesia: Objectives: 1. Protection of EEZ: Primary concern is safeguarding its exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and intrusions into its waters near the Natuna Islands. Strategies: 1. Increased Patrols:Indonesia has increased its naval and coast guard patrols in the area to protect its EEZ. 2. Diplomacy: Indonesia has sought diplomatic solutions to the Natuna Sea disputes while defending its sovereignty. ASEAN 2002- ASEAN and China signed the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (DOC), aimed to promote peace, stability, and cooperation in the region ​- acting as a regional forum for dialogue and diplomacy Recently ​ 2012: China took control of Scarborough Shoal after a standoff with the Philippines, leading to a strained relationship between the two countries. This island is located approximately 120 nautical miles from the nearest Philippine coast and about 500 nautical miles from China's Hainan Island. ​ 2012-2013: China established a blockade around Scarborough Shoal, preventing Filipino fishermen from accessing traditional fishing grounds in the area. This blockade led to a significant deterioration in bilateral relations. ​ 2013: The Philippines filed an arbitration case against China at the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague. The Permanent Court of Arbitration's ruling in 2016, which invalidated China's nine-dash line and affirmed the Philippines' rights under UNCLOS (This is also known as The Hague Ruling, useful to note for exams) ​ 2016: The arbitration tribunal ruled in favour of the Philippines, rejecting China's nine-dash line and asserting that certain Chinese actions violated UNCLOS. ​ Ongoing island-building activities by China led to the construction of artificial islands with military facilities. In Recent 2020s -​ China continued to assert its claims with military exercises, increased naval presence, and the enactment of domestic laws like the Maritime Traffic Safety Law. (refer to key terms) -​ Other countries in the region, such as Vietnam and Malaysia, expressed concerns over Chinese incursions into their exclusive economic zones (EEZs).  -​ March April 2018: China increased its military activity in the South China sea by conducting a series of Naval manoeuvres and exercises -​ Ongoing Challenges: -​ ASEAN's consensus-based decision-making process requires unanimous agreement, making it challenging to reach a unified stance on the South China Sea. -​ Some ASEAN member states have close economic ties with China and may prioritise economic interests over security concerns. -​ The South China Sea issue involves not only territorial disputes but also broader geopolitical considerations and great power competition, complicating ASEAN's efforts to resolve it. -​ 2021 - Ongoing Negotiations and Developments: -​ Negotiations on the COC (code of conduct) continue, with ASEAN and China engaging in multiple rounds of talks. -​ ASEAN has emphasised the importance of stability, peace, and adherence to international law in the South China Sea. -​ ASEAN is being very NATO (no action, talking only) Key Terminology and other relevant info: China claims the largest territory also known as the “Nine dash line” - The line comprises nine dashes which extends hundreds of miles south and east. An Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is an area of ocean near a country's coastline where that country has special rights to explore and use the natural resources, such as fish and oil, within the waters and beneath the seabed. Why does everyone want the Spratly islands? 1. Strategic Location: Along a vital maritime route for trade, with a significant portion of the world's shipping passing through it. Controlling the Spratlys provides nations with influence over these critical sea lanes. 2. Resource Riches: -The surrounding waters of the Spratlys are believed to be rich in natural resources, including fisheries, oil, natural gas, and minerals - valuable for economic development and energy security. 3. Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) (refer to above section) : Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), countries have the right to establish exclusive economic zones (EEZs) extending 200 nautical miles from their coastlines. The Spratly Islands are located within the potential EEZs of multiple countries, and ownership of the islands can grant control over these maritime zones. 4. National Pride and Sovereignty: Claims are often tied to national pride and sovereignty. Governments and their populations view the islands as part of their historical and cultural heritage, and ownership is a matter of national identity. 5. Military Advantage: Control of the Spratly Islands can provide a military advantage in the region This military aspect is particularly relevant for countries with competing territorial claims. Some countries in the region have security concerns related to the presence of potential adversaries in the South China Sea. Controlling or having a military presence on the Spratlys can be seen as a way to address these security concerns. Maritime Traffic Safety law 1.​ Foreign vessels entering Chinese territorial waters are required to notify Chinese maritime authorities in advance, providing information about their identity, purpose of entry, and route.  2.​ Foreign vessels must obtain permits from Chinese maritime authorities for certain activities in Chinese waters, such as marine scientific research or underwater exploration. 3.​ foreign vessels must comply with the "command and supervision" of Chinese maritime authorities while in Chinese territorial waters. Perspectives - whose sovereignty is being challenged, how and why? Every state's sovereignty is being challenged by China. 1. Vietnam: - Territorial Claims:Vietnam has territorial claims in the South China Sea, including the Paracel and Spratly Islands. These claims overlap with China's Nine-Dash Line. - Impacts on Sovereignty: China's aggressive island-building activities and military presence in the disputed areas have challenged Vietnam's sovereignty. It has led to disputes over ownership, thereby undermining Vietnam's territorial integrity. 2. Philippines: - Territorial Claims: The Philippines also asserts sovereignty over several features in the South China Sea, primarily in the Spratly Islands. - Impacts on Sovereignty: China's occupation of features like Mischief Reef, Scarborough Shoal, and Subi Reef has infringed upon Philippine sovereignty. The 2016 international tribunal ruling in favour of the Philippines confirmed that China's actions violated the Philippines' sovereign rights. 3. Malaysia: - Territorial Claims: Malaysia claims certain features in the South China Sea, particularly in the southern part of the Spratly Islands. - Impacts on Sovereignty: Malaysia has faced challenges to its sovereignty as China has increased its naval presence and conducted activities in areas claimed by Malaysia. This has raised concerns about Malaysia's ability to protect its territorial interests. 4. Brunei: - Resource Access: While Brunei does not have extensive territorial claims, it seeks to protect its exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and access to potentially resource-rich waters. - Impacts on Sovereignty: China's actions in the South China Sea have raised concerns for Brunei's sovereignty within its EEZ. The presence of foreign vessels, including those from China, can impact Brunei's maritime resources and sovereignty. 5. Taiwan: - Territorial Claims: Taiwan shares similar territorial claims with China in the South China Sea. - Impacts on Sovereignty: China's assertiveness in the region has implications for Taiwan's sovereignty claims. Taiwan maintains a presence on Itu Aba (Taiping) Island, but China's actions could challenge Taiwan's control over this territory. 6. Indonesia: - Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Indonesia is not a direct claimant to disputed territory in the South China Sea, but it has a significant EEZ in the region. - Impacts on Sovereignty: Indonesia's sovereignty has been challenged by Chinese vessels entering its EEZ near the Natuna Islands. These incursions have raised concerns about Indonesia's ability to protect its maritime sovereignty. What Violations of Maritime laws has China committed, thereby challenging sovereignty? United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS):UNCLOS is the primary framework governing maritime rights and responsibilities. It establishes the following key principles: ​ Territorial Waters: A coastal state has sovereignty over a belt of territorial sea extending 12 nautical miles (about 22.2 kilometres) from its baselines. ​ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Coastal states have special rights over the economic resources in an EEZ, which extends 200 nautical miles (about 370.4 kilometres) from the baselines. - Excessive Maritime Claims: China's Nine-Dash Line, a demarcation line that covers most of the South China Sea, has been deemed inconsistent with UNCLOS, infringing on the rights of other coastal states in the region.  - Artificial Islands: China's construction of artificial islands in the South China Sea, particularly in the Spratly Islands, has raised concerns. UNCLOS allows for artificial islands to generate a 12-nautical-mile territorial sea, but these features have been built on low-tide elevations, which do not qualify for territorial waters under UNCLOS. - Interference with Freedom of Navigation: China's actions, including the declaration of straight baselines around features it occupies, have been viewed as limiting freedom of navigation, which is protected under UNCLOS. This includes requiring foreign ships to seek permission before entering territorial waters, which is contrary to UNCLOS provisions on innocent passage. 2. Violation of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs): UNCLOS establishes the concept of EEZs, granting coastal states exclusive rights over the natural resources within 200 nautical miles of their coastlines. China's territorial claims overlap with the EEZs of neighbouring countries, such as the Philippines and Vietnam. This interference with the EEZs of other nations is a source of contention. 3. International Court of Justice (ICJ) and Arbitration Tribunal: In 2016, an arbitration tribunal under UNCLOS ruled in favour of the Philippines in its case against China's maritime claims. The tribunal found that China's nine-dash line had no legal basis and that China had violated the Philippines' sovereign rights in its EEZ. China rejected the ruling, but it is seen by many countries as a binding decision under international law. What could happen next? - illegal fuel transfers to North Korean tankers in the East China Sea and China's activities in the South China Sea. - The United States and Japan have formed a coalition to stop illegal fuel transfers to North Korean vessels - In the South China Sea, China's military buildup and aggressive maritime claims have prompted navies from various countries to conduct operations to maintain freedom of navigation. - while the U.S. has led efforts in the East China Sea coalition, it has been less effective in coordinating with like-minded states in the South China Sea - The expansion of international naval activities in the South China Sea, driven by concerns over China's actions, presents an opportunity for leadership and multilateral cooperation. Potential Outcomes if the U.S. Joins the South China Sea Conflict: - Increased International Pressure on China: If the U.S. takes a more proactive role in the South China Sea, it could lead to increased international pressure on China to adhere to international maritime laws and norms. - Strengthening of Regional Alliances:The U.S. joining the conflict could strengthen regional alliances with countries like Japan, Australia, the UK, and France, which are already involved in naval activities in the South China Sea. - Deterrence Against Further Chinese Expansion:A more coordinated and multilateral approach may deter China from further militarization or expansion of its maritime claims in the South China Sea. - Diplomatic Efforts:The U.S. could engage in diplomatic efforts to raise awareness of Chinese coercion and rule-breaking in the South China Sea, potentially leading to diplomatic compromises or consequences for China on the global stage. - Risk of Escalation: The involvement of the U.S. in the South China Sea conflict could raise tensions with China and carry a risk of escalation if not carefully managed. - Impact on Bilateral Relations: U.S.-China relations may further deteriorate if the U.S. takes a more active role in challenging China's maritime claims, potentially affecting trade, diplomacy, and global geopolitics. On the flip side, if this is left to Asia alone, highly likely nothing will happen for a while more Whilst there is Cooperation Against China: -The Philippines and Vietnam, both claim parts of the South China Sea, deepened their defence and security cooperation -They've also engaged in joint naval exercises with countries like Japan and Australia. - ASEAN as a regional organisation has collectively expressed concerns about the South China Sea issue and called for a peaceful resolution and adherence to international law. 2. Intra-Regional Disputes:  - While countries in the region share concerns about China's actions, they also have overlapping territorial claims and disputes among themselves. EXAMPLES: - The Philippines and Vietnam have had maritime disputes in the South China Sea. - Malaysia and Vietnam have overlapping claims in certain areas. - Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines have claims that overlap with China's nine-dash line. - These disputes occasionally result in diplomatic tensions and even limited skirmishes. 3. Economic Interests: - Some countries have close economic ties with China and may be hesitant to take actions that could harm economic relations. 4. ASEAN Unity: ASEAN aims to promote unity and cooperation among its member states, but the South China Sea issue has tested this unity due to differing positions and interests among member countries. ASEAN countries have sometimes struggled to reach a collective stance on the issue. In Simple terms : Some want to cooperate against China, some work with China and are scared to lose out economically, some argue amongst themselves, some want to be neutral, some work together but cannot come to agreements, some get into fights along the way. In the end, nothing gets done. INTERNATIONAL LEVEL 1. Freedom of Navigation: - United Kingdom and France, conduct freedom of navigation operations in the South China Sea to assert their rights to sail and fly through international waters and airspace -Disruptions in the South China Sea could affect global commerce and trade, impacting countries relying on these sea lanes. 2. Economic Interests: - The European Union has expressed concerns about the impact of the South China Sea conflict on international trade and economic stability -European countries rely on the free flow of goods through the South China Sea, and any disruptions in the region can affect their economic interests. 3. Diplomatic Relations: - Example: The South China Sea conflict has led to countries taking sides or forming alliances with rival claimants. -United States has strengthened its alliances with countries like the Philippines and Vietnam, which are involved in territorial disputes with China.. 4. Dependent: -Many countries apart from China are dependent on the South China Sea as it is a vital trade route for many countries. It has significantly reduced exports from ASEAN countries. The china south sea carries one-third of global shipping. -This affects the relationship between China and the rest of Asia, but it also affects world trade. 5.3 trillion worth of goods transmit through the south china sea. INTERNAL LEVEL China -​ The south china sea is important for the strategic patrol of Chinese SSBN (nuclear ballistic missile submarine) -​ China is dependent on the south china sea as it is valuable for its oil trade and is a crucial fishing ground for food security. -​ More than half of the world’s fishing vessels are in the south china sea, millions of people are dependent on these waters for their food and livelihood. Case Study 2: The Kurds Sovereignty is often explored in the context of ethnic or cultural groups seeking autonomy or independence within a state. The recognition and protection of minority rights can become a delicate balance between national sovereignty and the rights of these groups. The Kurds are an ethnic group spread across several countries in the Middle East, primarily in Iraq, Turkey, Syria, and Iran. Their quest for an independent Kurdistan challenges the sovereignty of these nation-states. Key events include the establishment of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in Iraq, the fight against ISIS in Syria, and ongoing tensions with the Turkish government. The case study highlights the tension between preserving state sovereignty and addressing the aspirations of minority groups for self-determination. The Kurds' pursuit of autonomy and independence, particularly through the establishment of the Kurdistan Regional Government and involvement in regional conflicts, challenges the sovereignty of Iraq, Turkey, and other host countries, threatening national territorial integrity. The United The United Nations (UN) Nations (UN) -​ The leading international organization truly ‘international’ in nature. It has 193 member states, representing most of the world’s sovereign states. Its policies are wide ranging -​ Charter of the United Nations -​ Founding document of the UN Major constituent parts -​ General assembly -​ Security council -​ Economic and social council -​ International court of justice -​ Secretariat Objectives Objectives Agencies and activities Promoting and UNSC – passes resolutions and authorises peacekeeping and other military action to protect protecting global global security. Some resolutions authorise military action led by other international security organisations, such as NATO. Peacekeepers are sent across the world. ICJ – makes rulings in international law when states disagree over sovereignty Protecting and UN Human Rights Council – consists of a selection of UN member states, working in promoting human rotation, to investigate and make other member states accountable for protecting human rights rights UN High Commissioner for Human Rights – a UN agency that operates independently from member states. It scrutinises member state’s human rights record Advancing world Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) – until 2015, agreed international action to human and promote human development across the poorest regions of the world. Replaced by the economic Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015, which continued the work of MDGs, with development a greater emphasis on sustainable development. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) – made up of 54 member states, serving one-year terms, ECOSOC coordinates UN action on economic, social and environmental issues. It also oversees the work of SDGs United Nations Development Program (UNDP) – works on UN-agreed development priorities across the world, funded by member states Tackling collective The UN has led to many important international summits on climate change. Successful issues examples: Kyoto protocol (1997). Less successful: Copenhagen Accord (2009) and the Paris Agreement (2015) The essence of the debates about the UN centre on its ability to challenge the sovereignty of the nation state, and if any of its treaties and covenants are enforceable at all. Intergovern Economic IGOs mental -​ World Trade Organization (WTO) Organization -​ Decides and enforces the rules of international trade, and resolves trade disputes between s (IGOs) states through negotiation. The WTO is made up of member states and is therefore an IGO. There has to be an agreement amongst all members before policy is officially adopted. -​ Has been criticised for failing to make progress in helping developing countries to join global markets through its Doha Development Agenda. -​ International Monetary Fund (IMF) -​ Works to improve global cooperation on financial stability and to promote economic growth and reduce poverty across the world. -​ The IMF continues to offer both financial assistance (loans) and technical advice to help states’ economic development Collective Security -​ North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) -​ The most significant example of a formal security alliance – founded in 1949 by the US and European allies in response to the Cold War threat. -​ NATO has expanded continuously since, mainly Eastward to include former soviet states -​ An IGO such as NATO exists to provide states with collective security – all member states offer one another military protection in the event of an attack Hybrid IGOs – having a number of different functions -​ The European Union (EU) -​ Complex regional hybrid IGO that has a very wide range of responsibilities and supporting institutions. It has supranational powers. -​ The idea was that member states would become politically and economically unified, and would become so interdependent that any future conflict would be near impossible -​ Most advanced and integrated IGO, sometimes criticised for actions ling a nation state and challenging state sovereignty. -​ Key bodies -​ European commission – acts as the EU’s executive, with the power to propose new laws. Has the power to set the agenda of the EU independently of the member states and their interests -​ European parliament – Often criticised as its parliament has weaker powers than the national parliament of sovereign states. -​ European court of justice – has the power to force member states to comply with EU law -​ European central bank – has the power to set monetary policy for member states of the EU that are in Eurozone and have adopted the EU’s single currency -​ Non-govern Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) mental -​ They lobby in domestic as well as international settings and mobilise their home or host states and organisations national and global public opinion. (NGOs), -​ NGOs immensely enhance the flow of information in global governance. They report information multinational about domestic politics to the world beyond a nation's borders, and, in the reverse direction, they corporations bring global concerns and perspectives to the national and local levels (MNCs) and -​ International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, Amnesty International, Human Rights trade unions Watch, Greenpeace Multinational Corporations (MNCs) -​ Their job leads to investments and goods being traded that contribute to interconnections between different nations. -​ Unilever, Philops, IKEA, Lenovo, Tata Trade Unions -​ The typical activities of trade unions include providing assistance and services to their members, collectively bargaining for better pay and conditions for all workers, working to improve the quality of public services, political campaigning and industrial action. -​ International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) Social Social movements movements, -​ A social movement is a loosely organised effort by a large group of people to achieve a particular resistance goal, typically a social or political one. This may be to carry out, resist or undo a social change. It is a movements type of group action and may involve individuals, organisations or both. and violent -​ Occupy, Black Lives Matter, Umbrella Movement, Fridays For Future protest -​ The Occupy movement is an international socio-political movement against social movements inequality and lack of 'real democracy' around the world, its primary goal being to advance social and economic justice and new forms of democracy. Why do they exist? Deprivation theory: social movements have their foundations among people who feel deprived of some good(s) or resources – according to this approach those who are deprived are more likely to organise a social movement to improve/defend their condition. Mass society theory: social movements are made up of those in large societies who feel socially detached or insignificant. According to this theory social movements provide empowerment. Links to key concepts Power Capability = People power (e.g. Avaaz has 44 Million Members in 194 Countries). Outcomes = Activists or Slacktivists? Avaaz pros and cons Sovereignty Governments can feel threatened by social movements e.g. The Iranian government uses one of the most extensive technical filtering systems in the world. Iran censorship Legitimacy Hobbes would argue that social movements threaten state legitimacy because they threaten political stability so they shouldn’t be given any legitimacy by states. Locke would argue social movements are legitimate because they are representative of the people and allow for freedom of expression which only increases the legitimacy of the state. Avaaz summary Interdependence Social movements are an example of mutual reliance between actors. Stages of social movements Violent protest movements -​ An organised initiative portraying collective disapproval towards a socio- political reform (protest); which oftentimes devolves into the use of violent force and aggression by state and non state actors. -​ Violent protest movements exist because sometimes non-violent methods like marches and sit-ins are perceived as being too passive and less effective. They can also be formed as a response to violent opposition from opposing groups and governments. Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), Hezbollah, Naxalites -​ The FARC and other guerrilla movements claim to be fighting for the rights of the poor in Colombia to protect them from government violence and to provide social justice through communism. The Colombian government claims to be fighting for order and stability, and to protect the rights and interests of its citizens. Links to key concepts Power Capability = People power (eg. farmers took power through violence and illegal activities in FARC). Outcomes = the result of the protests have been calamitous, with innocent civilians being caught in the crossfire between FARC and the Colombian government. FARC impact on civilians Sovereignty Violent protest movements can represent a challenge to sovereignty with states aiming to reassert its sovereignty. It is arguable that the Colombian government used to have true sovereignty as it lost control of nearly half of its territory to FARC FARC peace agreements Legitimacy Hobbes would argue that violent protest movements are illegitimate due to their possible outcomes - they can change the state of nature. However, Hobbes believes that violence against the people can be justified and is acceptable in some situations.Locke would believe (to an extent) that violent protest movements are healthy as a government's legitimacy comes from the people they govern. He would accept it if it was just war or was for a justified reason. However, this type of movement can be de-legitimised by their use of violence which can tarnish their reputation and impact their credibility. Also, in FARC’s case, they are further delegitimised by their main source of income, drugs. Interdependence Violent protest movements very rarely are an example of mutual reliance of actors due to a reluctance to be associated with such movements. However, an example of interdependence is the mutual reliance between the Colombian government and FARC as the drug trade is such a key contributor to the Colombian economy. Resistance movements -​ A resistance movement is an organised effort by a portion of the civil population of a country to withstand the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability. -​ Arab Spring, Orange Revolution in Ukraine Why do they exist? For the ‘oppressed’ to achieve cultural, social, political freedom against their ‘oppressors’ To resist/challenge cultural norms in societies Links to key concepts Power Capability = People power (e.g.people took power through technology in the Arab Spring). Outcomes = the result of the uprisings has been calamitous, leading to wars or increased repression in all but one of the six countries where the Arab Spring principally took place. Gaining power through technology Arab spring aftermath Sovereignty Resistance movements can represent a struggle for sovereignty – in many cases we see the state aim to reassert its sovereignty. Arab spring needed Hong Kong News Legitimacy Hobbes would argue that resistance movements are illegitimate due to their possible outcomes – they can bring about the state of nature. Locke would argue that resistance movements are healthy – inspired by the English revolution. Arab spring failure Interdependence Resistance movements are an example of mutual reliance between actors. Political Political Parties Parties -​ A key element in almost every country in the world. -​ There are one party systems (China), 2 party systems (US) and multi-party systems (India) -​ Political parties by nature function at a national level -​ They differ in their composition, structure and aims Similar ideas across political parties: -​ Agree on some policies and programs for the society with a view to promote the collective good -​ As there exist different views on what is good for all, the parties try to persuade people as to why their policies are better than others -​ Seek to implement these policies by winning popular support through elections -​ Parties reflect fundamental political divisions in society -​ Parties are a part of society and thus involve partisanship -​ Thus, a party is known by which part it stands for, which policies it supports and whose interests it upholds Legitimacy Refers to groups or actions that are generally considered to be acceptable,usually by conforming to agreed laws or democratic principles Sources of legitimacy Sources of legitimacy for Types of legitimate authority for democracies authoritarian states Balance of power -​ Propaganda Traditional authority- legitimate because it between 3 branches of -​ Hard power always existed, Inherited power government, -​ Bloodline Charismatic authority - Rulers personal characteristics, Unique character, Supporters constitutions, -​ International recognition are personally dedicated rule of law, -​ Economy Rational-legal - Legitimacy based on agreed international law and accepted rules and processes from defined principals, Appointment though independent and natural process CASE STUDY: Mohammed Bin Salah and Saudi Arabia Factors That Increased His Sovereignty Factors that Decreased his sovereignty Allowed cinemas, women can drive, festivals and Yemen war, humanitarian crises music - overall changing pace of life and making -​ widespread famine, outbreaks of cholera, things more relaxed mass displacement of civilians, and severe -​ traditional hand down on authority shortages of medical supplies and clean water, largely exacerbated by the ongoing conflict and blockade imposed by the Saudi-led coalition. -​ murder of khashoggi Legitimacy of States (sources of legitimacy) state and -​ Democracy non-state -​ At a national level, democracy brings legitimacy to governments that wish to exercise control actors over a particular region. Leaders are democratically elected by popular vote and serve for limited periods. -​ i.e US Constitution limits presidents to two 4 year terms of office  -​ Democracies are enhanced by: -​ The ability of the electorate to participate in elections freely and without intimidation -​ The electorate being able to choose from a wide range of political parties and alternative governments -​ The extent of checks and balances on the government (i.e an independent judiciary and effective legislature). -​ Balance of power -​ At a national level, states are often organised so that power is balanced amongst 3 key branches -​ Executive -​ Elected government which produces policy ideas and carries them out -​ Legislative -​ Scrutinises proposals of the elected government, votes on whether these proposals should become law -​ Judiciary -​ Ensures that the laws proposed by the executive, and agreed by the legislature, are upheld fairly according to the rule of law. -​ Constitution -​ This clearly sets out and limits the powers of the state, and branches of government within the state. Powers that are set out in a constitution are fixed and cannot be changed without undergoing a lengthy process -​ The rule of law -​ Key source of legitimacy -​ Particularly important for a fair system of justice and human rights. The key principles are that the law is always applied equally to all citizens; that neither citizens nor the government are above the law; and that every citizen has the right to a fair and legitimate trial -​ International law -​ Sovereignty can be confirmed and legitimised in a number of ways in international law (often through judgements of the ICJ and UNSC) -​ Other sources include: -​ Performance legitimacy -​ Possession and use of force -​ Ideological legitimacy NGOs -​ Non-governmental organisations frequently offer an independent perspective on the legitimacy of government actions -​ Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International put pressure on governments to improve their codification and protection of human rights laws. -​ NGOs themselves gain legitimacy through both their actions – being seen to be fair and transparent – and also through the recognition and status that some IGOs give them, such as the UN and EU Issues with NGOs -​ At the end of the day, NGOs have no political power and cannot stand there, no sovereignty On the plus side, being kicked out brought more attention and made this a more high profile case CASE STUDY: Haiti, republic of NGOs post 2010 earthquake -​ NGOs have been key to healthcare, water supply clearing debris, food and 1M ppl out of camps HOWEVER, -​ Poor coordination between NGOs, confusion on the ground -​ Inefficiencies, all at same slum for example, help not spread evenly ZERO INSTITUTIONAL MEMORY -​ NGOs offer large salaries which hampers local markets and hurt economies -​ They benefit from weak govs and economies -​ Long term solution is enabling the government NGO: Médecins Sans Frontières Where operating / Budget / Number of Employees / volunteers etc They provide medical humanitarian assistance in more than 70 countries Budget : 3.86 Billion 83% for programs, 16% for fundraising and 1% for General management and admin, Number of employees/volunteers : Over 2000 volunteers in the field all around the world and hundreds more in offices all around the world. Aims To provide impartial care while respecting the rights of the patient to make their own decisions and their confidentiality Functions (how it operates) They operate accordingly to their core values : a. Neutrality and Impartiality: MSF is known for its commitment to neutrality and impartiality. The organisation aims to provide medical care based on need alone, regardless of political, religious, or economic factors. b. Independence: MSF is independent and relies on private donors for funding. This financial independence allows the organisation to respond quickly to emergencies without being influenced by external pressures. c. Field Operations: MSF deploys medical professionals, including doctors, nurses, and logistical staff, to areas where there is a lack of healthcare infrastructure or where emergencies have occurred. They set up clinics, hospitals, and other medical facilities to provide care. d. Advocacy: In addition to providing medical care, MSF engages in advocacy efforts to bring attention to the plight of the people they serve and to address broader issues related to healthcare access and humanitarian concerns. When entering a country to provide aid : Assessment: MSF conducts a thorough needs assessment to evaluate the medical crisis, existing infrastructure, and specific needs in a given country. Coordination: The organisation collaborates with local health authorities and negotiates with the host government to obtain necessary permissions and agreements. Logistical Planning: MSF plans the logistics of deploying medical teams, supplies, and equipment, ensuring a rapid and effective response to crises. Deployment: International and local medical teams are deployed to affected areas, where MSF establishes medical facilities such as clinics and hospitals. Adaptation: MSF continuously assesses and adapts its operations to changing circumstances, staying committed to its core principles of neutrality, impartiality, and independence. Positive 2014 – THE WEST AFRICAN EBOLA EPIDEMIC Impact / -​ Largest outbreak of Ebola in history declared in Guinea strengths -​ Six affected countries in West Africa -​ MSF employed staff to fight the outbreak and and admitted 5,226 patients with confirmed ebola to its ebola management centres -​ Outbreak ended in June 2016 2010 – HAITI EARTHQUAKE -​ Quick response: MSF launched one of the largest emergency interventions in its history a day after the earthquake -​ MSF mobilised hundreds of staff to respond to cholera outbreak and opened more than 50 cholera treatment centres across Haiti -​ MSF continues to work in Haiti through a hospital opened in 2019 Strengths: -​ Rapid and effective emergency response -​ Neutral and impartial care -​ Flexible approach to new crisis -​ Attracts highly skilled medical professionals -​ Raises awareness of humanitarian issues and advocates for improved access to healthcare in crisis areas Challenge In 2013 the MSF faced challenges in providing medical aid in Syria due to access s/ restrictions and security concerns, highlighting the limitations NGOs can encounter in weakness conflict zones. es -​ They eventually opened an emergency surgical programme in Ramtha, northern Jordan, near the Syrian border, to treat war-wounded people from Syria. In 2014-2016 Ebola Outbreak in West Africa : -​ The largest and most complex Ebola outbreak in history affecting Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. -​ According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there were over 28,000 reported cases, with more than 11,000 deaths. -​ Had to deal with the spread of disease in the urban areas too, lack of experiences hinder its ability to effectively respond to the crisis as the dynamics of urban transmission is totally different to the rural areas. -​ Faced resistance and mistrust in certain communities, unable to implement their health policies.  How can this NGO be linked to power / sovereignty? -​ Soft power is the main way to achieve their aims and actions through negotiations and conversations in order to gain access to the region in need of these aids, to prevent invading the sovereignty of a country -​ Governments may not be happy for NGOs to operate freely within their borders as it might be a challenge to their authority, particularly during times of conflicts. -​ MSF operates independently but also relies on funds from intergovernmental organisations or cooperation with these IGOs at times. NGO: Amnesty International Where Founded: May 28th 1961 London United Kingdom operating / , Operates globally across multiple countries Budget / Number of Current Leader dude: Pierre Sané employees / volunteers etc Budget In 2022, our global expenditure was €356m (16% up from 2021, €308m). The pie chart shows the breakdown of what was spent. Workforce 320 permanent posts and 95 volunteers from more than 50 countries. The Secretary General is Pierre Sané. Amnesty International is governed by a nine-member International Executive Committee (IEC) Global movement of more than 10 million people, united by shared humanity. Aims Aims to promote and defend human rights globally, adressing issues such as discrimination, torture, and unfair imprisonment: -​ International Solidarity -​ Effective action for individual victim -​ Global Coverage -​ Universality and Indivisibility of human rights -​ Impartiality and independence -​ Democracy and Human rights Includes Important Concept: Universalism vs Cultural Relativism Methods -​ Volunteers -​ Donations, charity -​ Research, advocacy and campaigns to raise awareness -​ Document human rights abuses -​ Press for charges The current Global Strategic Framework covers their work from 2022 to 2030 Every year, representatives from over 60 countries attend a Global Assembly to vote on decisions that guide the Amnesty movement. These decisions include the selection of the International Board and Secretary General, Amnesty’s chief spokesperson. As an Amnesty members participate in local conferences, events and elections organised by their country office The current Global Strategic Framework covers their work from 2022 to 2030 Positive Impact Arms Trade Treaty (2013): / strengths ​ Amnesty International actively lobbied and mobilised support for the Arms Trade Treaty (ATT), which was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2013. ​ The ATT, in force since 2014, regulates international conventional weapons trade to prevent their misuse and reduce human suffering. ​ International Criminal Court (ICC) (2002): ​ Amnesty International played a crucial role in advocating for the establishment of the ICC, contributing to the adoption of the Rome Statute in 1998. ​ The ICC, operational since 2002, is the first permanent international court prosecuting individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. ​ Global Convention Against Torture (1984): ​ Amnesty International, along with other groups, contributed to the adoption of the UN Convention Against Torture in 1984. ​ The Convention, effective from 1987, serves as a key instrument globally in preventing and punishing acts of torture. ​ 112 countries had abolished the death penalty in law by the end of 2022 ​ 883 the number of executions Amnesty International recorded in 2022 – up 53% from 2021 ​ 1,000s of people were likely executed in China but the numbers remain classified ​ Juvenile execution Challenges / Resistance from governments that oppose their critiques (Cough SG) weaknesses Limited Resources Their critiques dont always result in changes - prime example (again they have problem with MY and SG), caning which is seen as “torture” Is still prevalent in prisons in these two countries despite the 1984 treaty, Amnesty judges these treatments of prisoners as cruel by a western standard, but cannot actually change the cultural acceptance of such practices How can this Challenges power and legitimacy of certain governments and institutions. NGO be linked to power / Interdependence - Organization operates in a multilateral world sovereignty / legitimacy / Case study palm oil and child labour interdependenc e?  IGOs -​ International organisations gain legitimacy from the treaties and agreements on which they are founded -​ Treaty of Rome (European Union), United Nations Charter (United Nations). -​ IGOs usually have clear procedures and rules stating what their powers and areas of interest are. Some very powerful IGOs, like the European Union and its European Central Bank, can clash with nation states. -​ In such cases, deciding which side has the greater legitimacy (the state or IGO), can only be done by examining whether the IGO is acting within its powers and whether the state has complied fully with the rules and procedures of the IGOs -​ i.e IMF and European Central Bank imposing austerity measures on Greece (Eurozone member state), even though the Greek people had elected an anti-austerity government. Violent Extremist Groups -​ A frequent debate in global politics is whether violent extremist and terrorist groups are fighting a legitimate cause. -​ i.e whether one person’s terrorist is another person’s freedom fighter -​ Confidence building measure, like commitment to non-violence and to peaceful dispute resolution, may give violent extremist groups legitimacy to take part in negotiations -​ Other violent extremist groups may try to justify their violent actions by saying that they have no other option than violent struggle. -​ When civil and political rights are denied to opposition groups there is a risk that they may resort to violence or civil disobedience -​ The way in which IGOs or states refer to violent extremist groups (i.e terrorist groups or other names) influences their legitimacy NGOs and extremist groups often gain legitimacy through the recognition of states or IGOs, whereas an IGO is usually legitimised by a treaty or formal international agreement Global Global governance governance -Supranational -the collection of governance related activities, rules and mechanisms, formal and informal;existing above national level in the world -facilitates governance in the sense of coordination NOT government in the sense of ordered rule -interactive decision-making -​ The way states organise themselves, make agreements and tackle shared challenges above national level, usually through international organisations with clear rules. -​ From a liberal perspective, global governance is a key priority. It allows states to react to – and solve – problems that they have in common and that, if left unresolved, would impact on more than one state. -​ Climate change, for example. -​ The growth of IGOs over recent decades suggests that the liberal ideal of global governance is progressing well. -​ However, IGOs are frequently limited in what they are able to agree on. Often IGOs or international summits cannot agree on a joint agenda for action. -​ Realism takes over, with states protecting their national interests. Some states use IGO memberships to protect their core interests. This can be seen when the core members of the UNSC use their veto power. Ian Goldin -​ GG, The challenges of managing the side-effects of globalisation and population growth (spillover of success) -​ Problem is balancing the short-term national interests of states with long-term global concerns -​ Existing actors are gridlocked  David held -​ Nation state is “not enough” to deal successfully with core global challenges such as managing global commons and threats to humanity (pandemics) -​ 1945 settlement is tired and not representative of modern world -​ Paradox- an increasingly globalised and integrated world, but a sense of identity still stubbornly wedded to the nation state Criticisms -​ Capitalism: profit making impetus of global capitalism means GG is now just political deal making of the wealthy elite -​ Superpower oligarchy: GG institutions need to be democratised to widen meaningful participation Reasons why effective global governance is difficult THE IMF What is its role? the world’s “financial firefighter.” When a country’s economic problems threaten to undermine global financial stability, the IMF is called upon to douse the flames by providing loans to alleviate the country’s economic stress Method -​ Countries agree to allow the institution to monitor their economic and financial policies. The IMF uses this information to issue every country a regular (usually annual) report card known as an Article IV consultation. -​ judges a country’s financial state by looking at its fiscal position—the size of the government’s budget deficit and the amount of debt it has outstanding—as well as its balance of payments, or how much money is flowing in and out of a country -​ IMF typically offers a loan and advice on how to structure economic policies, such as taxation and government budgets Successes -​ succeeded in preventing a disorderly default by providing substantial financial assistance to Greece. This prevented a potential domino effect on other weak European economies and stabilised the eurozone. -​ helped stabilise Greece's economy and prevented a collapse of its banking system, which could have had broader repercussions across the eurozone Failures -​ With certain votes requiring 85 percent approval and the United States controlling 16.5 percent of the organisation’s total voting power, the United States effectively has veto power over critical policy decisions. -​ IMF loans can be controversial. They often stipulate austerity measures—policies that mandate decreased government spending, increased taxation, or a combination of the two. Those policies are intended to boost government revenue, cut down on debt, and allow the country to regain access to funds from the global financial market, but a decrease in spending often means cuts to government services and welfare programs, harming some of society’s poorest members -​ austerity measures led to pension cuts and tax increases amid a period of record unemployment. Some critics claim that austerity measures are counterproductive to economic recovery Responsibility to Protect - R2P, From the UN -​ From 1945-90s, the UN respected the concept of sovereignty - that states could not interfere in the domestic affairs of other states - but this was challenged by the Rwandan Genocide which shocked the world as states looked on and watched 1m people die but did nothing. -​ 2005 - the UN ratified Responsibility to Protect (R2P) Doctrine which says that if a state is failing to protect its citizens or is committing atrocities against them, then it is the responsibility of the UN to protect them who can challenge a state’s sovereignty in order to do so. CASE STUDIES AND USAGES 1)​ Somalia -​ Military coup left Somalia without a functioning government in 1991 -​ UN deploy peacekeepers to monitor ceasefire and deliver aid to starving people -​ They became the target of local militias -​ UN authorised the US to capture militia leaders in the capital in 1993 -​ Operation resulted in mass death -​ Result: countries wary of sending troops on peacekeeping missions Overall: Largely Unsuccessful 2)​ Libya -​ In 2011 the UN invoked the R2P doctrine again when Muammar al-Qaddafi responded to local protests with extreme violence and thus the UN ordered NATO to breach Libya’s sovereignty to prevent and suppress this massacre. This moment also provoked Russia and China to be less likely to green-light future humanitarian interventions. Cooperation: Cooperation treaties, -​ Treaties collective -​ States do not simply cooperate with each other through IGOs. A more flexible way of security, cooperating with other states is through bilateral and multilateral treaties strategic -​ These are agreed between as many or as few states as desired alliances, -​ These may be agreed by states that group together on a particular issue, rather than economic by region cooperation, -​ If in treaty form, they represent formal international law informal -​ Some treaties are used to establish, or change the rules of, IGOs cooperation -​ To be fully covered by, and obliged to comply with treaties, states must: -​ Sign the treaty -​ Ratify the treaty through their national legislatures or parliaments Examples of treaties -​ States can cooperate with one another by signing international treaties, however some have been more successful than others  Collective security -​ NATO (see above) Strategic alliances -​ States frequently cooperate more informally, without the need for treaties or IGOs. Choosing reliable and profitable allies and working together on matters of security, trade or development is