First-Quarter Reviewer - Biology PDF

**MODULE 1** **[RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: ]** \- is the organ system in the body that is responsible for the intake and extraction of gases in the body. - exchange of gases - supply the blood with oxygen - enable you to breath - Voice production - provides the energy needed by cells of th...

**MODULE 1** **[RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: ]** \- is the organ system in the body that is responsible for the intake and extraction of gases in the body. - exchange of gases - supply the blood with oxygen - enable you to breath - Voice production - provides the energy needed by cells of the body - a process of respiration **PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:** - Nose -- the organ through which the air enters and is filtered. - Nasal passages -- serve as channels for airflow through the nose in which air is warmed, cleaned, and moistened. - Trachea -- also called windpipe; a hollow tube that serves as a passageway of gases into the lungs. - Bronchi -- also called bronchial tubes; two branching tubes that connect the trachea to the lungs. - Bronchioles -- the finer subdivisions of the bronchi; hairlike tubes that connect to alveoli. - Alveoli -- also called air sacs; allow the gas exchange in the lungs. - Lungs -- supply the body with oxygen. (The lungs bring oxygen into the body and eliminate carbon dioxide from the body). **RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: INHALATION** - Rib muscles and diaphragm contract (moves down) - Rib cage expands - Lung volume increases - Air pressure in the lungs decreases - Air flows into the lungs - When you inhale, the volume of your chest cavity increases **RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: EXHALATION** - Rib muscles and diaphragm relax (moves up) - Rib cage becomes smaller - Air pressure in the lungs increases - Air flows out of the lungs - When you exhale, the volume of your chest cavity decreases **[CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: ]** \- is the organ system in the body that is responsible for distributing materials throughout the body. \- it functions with other body systems to deliver different materials into the body. It circulates vital elements such as oxygen and nutrients. At the same time, it also transports waste away from the body. [Circulation] means transportation or movement in circles. **PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:** **1. BLOOD** -- carries the materials (nutrients and gases) throughout the body. **Components of Blood:** - Red Blood Cells -- deliver oxygen to the tissues in your body. - White Blood Cells -- responsible for protecting your body from infection. - Platelets -- prevent and stop bleeding. **2. BLOOD VESSEL** -- carries the blood throughout the body. **Types of Blood Vessels:** - Arteries -- carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the cells, tissues, and organs of the body. - Veins -- carry deoxygenated blood to the heart. - Capillaries -- the smallest blood vessels in the body, connecting the smallest arteries (arteriole) to the smallest veins (venule). **3. HEART** -- pumps blood throughout the body. - Human heart has 4 chambers (left and right atrium, left and right ventricle) - 2 Atria -- receiving chambers of the heart accepting blood from the body (right atrium) and from the lungs (left atrium). - 2 Ventricles -- are the pumping chambers, moving blood to the lungs (right ventricle) and into the body (left ventricle). - The **left side** of the heart pumps and receives only [oxygen-rich blood], while the **right side** receives and pumps only [oxygen-poor blood]. - The **valve** between each atrium and ventricle prevents the blood from flowing backward. The valves are like one-way doors that keep the blood moving in only one direction.  **TYPES OF CIRCULATION:** **1. PULMONARY CIRCULATION** -- a movement of blood from the heart to the lungs, and back to the heart. **2. CORONARY CIRCULATION** -- a movement of blood through the tissues of the heart. **3. SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION** -- a movement of blood from the heart to the rest of the body, excluding the lungs. **EFFECTS OF CIGARETTE SMOKING:** **RESPIRATORY SYSTEM DISEASES CIRCULATORY SYSTEM DISEASES** 1\. Bronchitis 1. Hypertension 2\. Emphysema 2. Coronary Heart Diseases 3\. Asthma 3. Myocardial infarction (heart attack) 4\. Tuberculosis 4. Arteriosclerosis 5\. Pneumonia 5. Aneurysm 6\. COVID-19 disease 6. Stroke 7\. Lung Cancer **MODULE 2** **GENETICS:** \- is the study of heredity and variation. - Heredity -- passing of traits from parent to offspring. - Variation -- demonstrates differences among individuals. - Gene -- are the DNA sequences that determine what traits you have. - Allele -- a pair of gene that control a characteristic or trait. - Homozygous -- gene combination involving 2 dominant or 2 recessive genes. - Heterozygous -- gene combination of one dominant and one recessive allele. **NON-MENDELIAN PRINCIPLE OF INHERITANCE:** **1. INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE** -- a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele. This results in a [third phenotype] in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of dominant and recessive phenotypes. **2**. **CODOMINANCE** -- both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote. Occurs when two versions or alleles of the same gene are present in a living thing, and both are expressed. Instead of one trait being dominant over the other, both traits appear.  **3. MULTIPLE ALLELES** -- when more than two alleles control the inheritance of a character. In humans, there are four blood types (phenotypes): A, B, AB, O. Blood type is controlled by three alleles: A, B, O. O is recessive, two O alleles must be present for a person to have type O blood. A and B are codominant. If a person receives an A allele and a B allele, their blood type is type AB. **SEX CHROMOSOMES AND SEX DETERMINATION** Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell. The human body cells show 23 pairs of chromosomes for both males and females. Twenty-two pairs are somatic chromosomes/autosomes. The 23^rd^ pair consists of sex chromosomes. If an egg is fertilized by a sperm with Y chromosomes, the offspring is male. When an egg is fertilized by a sperm carrying an X chromosome, the offspring is female. **KEY CONCEPTS** Males have 44 body chromosomes and two sex chromosomes X and Y. The males determine the sex of their children. Females have 44 body chromosomes and two sex chromosomes, both X. The total number in each cell of an individual is 46. These chromosomes contain genes, which are the factors of heredity. **MODULE 3** **PHOTOSYNTHESIS** -- a process used by plants and some other microorganisms to process their food using the energy from the sun. - Leaves -- the main organ of photosynthesis in plants. - The mesophyll has the most chloroplast that contains chlorophyll. They are important in trapping light energy from the sun. - Chloroplast -- site of photosynthesis. - Thylakoid -- a membrane bound structure within the chloroplast, contain chlorophyll and where photosynthesis (light dependent reaction) takes place. - Stroma -- refers to the colorless fluid surrounding the granum within the chloroplast. - Chlorophyll -- green pigment that enables plants to absorb light energy from the sun. **Stages of Photosynthesis** **Light Dependent Reaction** **Light Independent Reaction/Dark Reaction/Calvin Cycle** ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------------- **Site in the Chloroplasts** Thylakoid Stroma **Starting materials** H~2~O and sunlight CO~2~, NADPH, ATP **Product** NADPH, ATP, O~2~ Glucose (C~6~H~12~O~6~) **CELLULAR RESPIRATION** - is a process by which sugar/glucose is broken down into smaller particles to be absorbed by the cells and produce ENERGY. **Types of Cellular Respiration:** - **Aerobic Respiration** -- a type of respiration that is carried on in the **presence of oxygen** by which oxygen is obtained from the air or from water in which is dissolved. - **Anaerobic Respiration** -- a type of respiration in which a number of one-celled organisms, including yeast and many forms of bacteria, can carry on in the **absence of oxygen**. Glucose \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-- Lactic acid + Energy **STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION:** 1\. Glycolysis 2\. Pyruvate Oxidation 3\. Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle 4\. Electron Transport Chain/Oxidative Phosphorylation +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **STAGES OF | **1^st^ STAGE** | **2^ND^ STAGE** | **3^RD^ STAGE** | | CELLULAR | | | | | RESPIRATION** | | | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | 1\. Name of | Glycolysis | Krebs | ETC/Oxidative | | the process | | Cycle/Citric | Phosphorylation | | | | Acid Cycle | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 2\. Raw | Glucose, 2 ATP | Pyruvate, 6 | NADH, FADH~2~, | | Materials | | NADH, Acetyl | ADP, H+, O~2~ | | | | CoA, FAD, ADP | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 3. By-products | 2 Pyruvate | Acetyl CoA, 6 | NAD, FAD | | | | NADH, 4-carbon | | | | 2 NADH | molecule, 2 | | | | | FADH~2~ | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 4. End-products | 2 ATP | 2 ATP, CO~2~ | H~2~O, 34 ATP | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 5\. Where the | Cytoplasm | Mitochondrial | Cristae | | process takes | | matrix | | | place | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 6\. Is oxygen | No | Yes | Yes | | needed | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+  **MODULE 4** **BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION** - **Biodiversity** -- refers to the variety of life in an area. - **Species** - a unique type of organism that shows common characteristics and is capable of interbreeding. - **Population** - a group of living things within a certain area that is all the same species. - **Community** -- a group of different populations living in the same area. - **Ecosystem** - community of living and non-living things in a given area interacting as a system. - **Limiting factors** - are environmental conditions that keep a population from increasing in size and help balance ecosystems. - **Carrying Capacity** - the maximum population size an environment can support. - **Threatened Species** - are those species wherein their population begins to decline. - **Endangered Species** - are those species wherein their population is so low that are nearly extinct. - **Extinct Species** - the disappearance of a species when the last of its members die. - Human actions have resulted in habitat loss and degradation that have accelerated the rate of extinction. - The principal causes of deforestation are illegal logging, kaingin farming, forest fires, and conversion of agricultural lands to housing projects, and typhoon. - The effects of deforestation include soil erosion, floods, and depletion of wildlife resources. - The major cause of wildlife depletion is the loss of habitat. - Coral reef destruction is caused by dynamite fishing and muro-ami, while mangrove destruction is caused by overharvesting and conversion of the area into other uses. - In eutrophication, nutrients are washed away from the land to enrich bodies of water. It causes excessive growth of aquatic plants and algae and results in algal bloom, which eventually dies and decomposes. The process depletes the oxygen dissolved in water, causing fish and other aquatic organisms to die. - Acid rain is a result of air pollution mostly from factories and motor vehicles. - Sustainable development means that a society should live under the carrying capacity of the environment.