BIOL219 SP25 Study Guide PDF

# Study guide Test 1 BIOL219 SP25 (chapters 1,4-6) ## Define anatomy and physiology. Anatomy is the study of structure; physiology is the study of function. ## Define few subdisciplines of human anatomy. - Microscopic anatomy refers to the anatomical study of structures that can't be seen with t...

# Study guide Test 1 BIOL219 SP25 (chapters 1,4-6) ## Define anatomy and physiology. Anatomy is the study of structure; physiology is the study of function. ## Define few subdisciplines of human anatomy. - Microscopic anatomy refers to the anatomical study of structures that can't be seen with the naked eye - Gross anatomy refers to the anatomical study of structures that are visible to the naked eye - Comparative anatomy is studying the similarities and differences of different structures - Developmental anatomy is studying how structure changes over time from birth to maturity - Embryology is studying the change of structures prior to birth - Regional anatomy is studying the structures that are in a similar region of the body - Surface anatomy is studying how internal structures relate to surface layers of the body - Systemic anatomy is studying the structures that are involved in a certain system ## List the levels of human body structures (order). Atom, molecule, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism ## List human body systems, state their major function(s) - **Nervous system** controls body movement, responds to sensory stimuli, controls other systems - **Respiratory system** controls the exchange of gases between blood and air in lungs - **Cardiovascular system** moves blood throughout the body to distribute hormones, nutrients, gases, and pick up waste - **Muscular system** produces body movement, generates heat with muscles - **Digestive system** digests food, absorbs nutrients, and expels waste - **Lymphatic system** transports and filters lymph and initiates an immune response when necessary - **Endocrine system** secretes hormones that regulate body and cellular growth, chemical levels, and reproductive functions - **Reproductive system** produces sex cells and performs reproductive functions between sex cells of male and female - **Urinary system** filters blood and removes waste from the blood in the form of urine and expels from body - **Integumentary system** provides protection, regulates body temperature, synthesizes vitamin D, prevents water loss - **Skeletal system** provides support and protection, stores calcium phosphorus, and provides sites for muscle attachment ## Define anatomical position, directional terms and planes Anatomical position is a standard universal position for comparing structures of the body. - **Anterior vs. posterior** (ventral vs. dorsal) is front and back - **Superior vs. inferior** is upper and lower - **Medial vs. lateral** is towards and away from midline - **Proximal vs. distal** is closer and further from the head - **Coronal plane** divides the body into anterior and posterior sections - **Transversal plane** divides the body into superior and inferior sections - **Midsagittal plane** divides the body into left and right sections - **Oblique plane** divides the body at an angle ## List cavities, serous membranes that line those cavities - **Thoracic cavity** contains the mediastinum and lungs; the mediastinum contains the pericardial cavity and the lungs is contained by the pleural cavity - **Pericardial cavity's** serous membrane is the pericardium, which consists of the parietal pericardium that lines the inner surface of the pericardium, and the visceral pericardium that covers the external surface of the pericardium - **Pleural cavity's** serous membrane is the pleura, which consists of the parietal pleura that lines the inner surface of the pleura, and the visceral pleura that covers the external surface of the pleura. - **Abdominopelvic cavity** contains the abdominal and pelvic cavities; these cavities contain the peritoneum - **Peritoneum** is contained by the peritoneal cavity, which consists of the parietal peritoneum that lines the inner surface of the peritoneum and the visceral peritoneum that covers the external surface of the peritoneum. ## List regions of abdomen - **Right and left hypochondriac** are right below the ribs - **Epigastric** is above the navel - **Right and left lumbar** are between the ribs and pelvis - **Umbilical** is by the navel - **Right and left iliac** are by the hip bones - **Hypogastric** is below the navel - **Right and left upper quadrant** - **Right and left lower quadrant** ## Name regions of the body using Medical terminology - **Abdominal:** inferior to thorax and superior to hip bones - **Antebrachial:** forearm - **Auricular:** ear - **Axillary:** armpit - **Brachial:** upper portion of arm - **Buccal:** cheek - **Calcaneal:** heel of foot - **Carpal:** wrist - **Cephalic:** head - **Cervical:** neck - **Cranial:** skull - **Crural:** lower portion of leg - **Digital:** fingers or toes - **Dorsal:** back - **Frontal:** forehead - **Gluteal:** buttock - **Hallux:** great toe - **Inguinal:** groin - **Lumbar:** portion of back between ribs and pelvis - **Mammary:** breast - **Mental:** chin - **Nasal:** nose - **Oral:** mouth - **Orbital:** eye - **Palmar:** palm of head - **Patellar:** kneecap - **Pelvic:** pelvis - **Pubic:** anterior region of pelvis - **Sural:** calf - **Tarsal:** proximal portion of foot and ankle - **Thoracic:** chest or thorax - **Umbilical:** navel ## Tissue organization ### Four major tissue types Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous ### Epithelial tissue, structure, types - **Simple:** single layer - **Stratified:** two or more layers - **Pseudostratified:** appearance of multiple layers, but not all cells reach the apical surface - **Squamous:** flat, wide, and somewhat irregular in shape - **Cuboidal:** about the same size on all sides; the nucleus is usually centrally located - **Columnar:** taller than they are wide; nucleus is oval and located in the basal region of the cell #### Distribution (examples from lecture): - **Simple squamous:** alveoli - Single layer of flat cells - **Simple cuboidal:** kidney tubules - Single layer of cells as tall as they are wide - **Simple columnar:** mucosa of small intestine - Single layer of cells that are taller than they are wide; no cilia present - Some have cilia on their apical surface (uterine tube) - **Keratinized stratified squamous:** epidermis - Multiple layers of cells; apical cells are squamous; superficial layers of cells contain keratin - **Nonkeratinized stratified squamous:** mucosa of vagina - Multiple layers of cells; apical cells are squamous - **Transitional:** urinary bladder - Apical cell shape changes depending on whether the tissue is stretched or relaxed - **Stratified cuboidal:** duct of sweat gland - Multiple layers of cells; apical cells are cuboidal - **Stratified columnar:** male urethra - Multiple layers of cells; apical cells are columnar - **Pseudostratified columnar:** mucosa of nasal cavity - Single layer of columnar cells, but layered appearance of nuclei suggest multiple layers of cells ### Connective tissue #### Components: Cells, fibers, ground substance - **Cells:** fibroblasts, osteocytes, adipocytes - **Fibers:** elastic, collagen, reticular - **Ground substance:** a mix of proteins and carbs with variable amounts of salts and water #### Types of connective tissue - **Loose:** serves as the body's packing material, found in spaces around organs - **Dense:** strong, has fibers packed tightly together - **Distribution (Examples from lecture):** - **Areolar:** papillary layer of dermis - Contains fibroblasts, collagen, and elastic fibers - **Reticular:** spleen - Known as “fat”; contains adipocytes - **Dense reg:** tendons - Contains reticular fibers, fibroblasts, and leukocytes - **Dense irregular:** reticular layer of dermis - Bundles of collagen fibers extending in many directions - **Elastic: ** wall of the aorta - Elastic fibers provide ability to stretch and recoil - **Dense regular:** tendon - Collagen fibers aligned parallel to applied force ## Integumentary system - **Skin** is the largest organ - **Epidermis:** strata, types of cells present - **Stratum basale:** keratinocytes, keratin, melanocytes, tactile (Merkel) cells; single layer - **Stratum spinosum:** keratinocytes, dendritic cells; several layers - **Stratum granulosum:** keratinocytes, keratin; 3-5 layers - **Stratum lucidum (only thick skin):** keratinocytes; 2-3 layers - **Stratum corneum:** keratinocytes (corneocytes); 20-30 layers #### Comparison of thick vs thin skin - Thick skin contains all five layers while thin skin lacks stratum lucidum; thick skin lacks hair follicles - **Dermis:** layers, types of cells and structures present - **Papillary layer:** superficial, adjacent to epidermis; areolar connective tissue - **Reticular layer:** deeper and thicker layer; dense irregular connective tissue - **Hair:** structure; types/distribution - **Lanugo :** downy hair found in fetus - **Vellus:** covers after birth most of the body - **Terminal:** coarser, found on scalp, eyebrows, eyelashes, pubic area, and facial hair - **Hair bulb:** swelling of epithelial cells where the hair originates - **Hair root:** portion deep to the skin surface - **Hair shaft:** portion extending beyond the skin surface - **Hair follicle:** surrounds each hair - **Arrector pili:** muscles attach to hair shaft - **Nail:** structure - **Nail plate:** whitish free edge - **Nail body:** pinkish - **Nail root:** covered by skin - **Nail bed:** nail body covers this layer of the epidermis - **Nail matrix:** thickened growing part of nail bed - **Lunula:** white semilunar proximal area of nail body caused by thickened underlying stratum basale - **Wound healing steps** 1. Cut blood vessels bleed into the wound 2. Blood clot forms, and leukocytes clean wound 3. Blood vessels regrow, and granulation tissue forms 4. Epithelium regenerates, and connective tissue fibrosis occurs ## Bone and cartilage - **Cells of cartilage** - **Chondrocytes** are inside lacunae - **Hyaline cartilage:** cover ends of bones that meet in flexible articulations - **Trachea** - Most common, but weakest; glassy matrix; clear microscopic appearance due to collagen fibers - **Fibrocartilage: ** intervertebral disc - **Pubic Symphysis** - Densely interwoven collagen fibers contribute to the durability - **Elastic cartilage:** external ear - Abundant elastic fibers ## General functions of the bone Support & protection, movement, hemopoiesis, storage of mineral and energy reserves ## Compact vs spongy bone, structural differences - **Compact bones** are solid, dense, and are the external surfaces of long and flat bones. - **Spongy bones** are open lattice of narrow plates called trabeculae and are the internal surface of bones ## Classification of the bones by shapes, examples as on the slide - **Long bones:** greater length then width (femur) - **Short bones:** nearly equal length and width (tarsal & carpal bones) - **Flat bones:** thin surfaces (frontal bone) - **Irregular bones:** complex shapes (vertebra) ## Gross anatomy of the long bone, epiphyseal plate - **Diaphysis:** elongated, cylindrical shaft - **Epiphysis:** knobby, enlarged regions at each end - **Metaphysis:** region between diaphysis and epiphysis that contains epiphyseal plate (growth plate) ## Articular cartilage: - Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the epiphysis; reduces friction and absorbs shock in moveable joints ## Medullary cartilage: - Hollow, cylindrical space in diaphysis; contains yellow or red bone marrow ## Types of cells in the bone tissue, and their role - **Osteocytes:** reside in lacunae; maintains matric and detects mechanical stress on a bone - **Osteoprogenitor:** mesenchymal stem cells found in endosteum and periosteum; can produce more stem cells or osteoblasts - **Osteoblasts:** forms bone matrix - **Osteoclasts:** large, multinuclear cells that dissolve bone matric, releasing calcium ## Hormones regulating calcium levels - **Growth hormones** promote bone elongation - **Thyroid hormone:** stimulates bone growth by stimulating metabolic rate of osteoblasts - **Calcitonin (thyroid):** promotes calcium deposition in bone and inhibits osteoclast activity - **Parathyroid hormone:** increases blood calcium levels by encouraging the bone resorption by osteoclasts - **Sex hormones:** stimulates osteoblasts; promotes epiphyseal plate growth and closure - **Glucocorticoids:** if levels are chronically too high, bone resorption occurs and significant bone mass is lost (osteoporosis).