Chapter 9 & 14 Test PDF

Chapter 9: Interpersonal Attraction What Causes Attraction: a. MIT Westgate West Study b. Proximity facilitates chance encounters, which can lead to friendships. c. Functional distance, such as the layout of buildings, can enhance or hinder these interact...

Chapter 9: Interpersonal Attraction What Causes Attraction: a. MIT Westgate West Study b. Proximity facilitates chance encounters, which can lead to friendships. c. Functional distance, such as the layout of buildings, can enhance or hinder these interactions. Types of relationships: a. Communal relationships involve a special responsibility for one another and are often long-term. b. Exchange relationships are trade-based, short-term, and governed by equity and reciprocity. Explanation Communal relationships are characterized by a sense of oneness and shared identity, where individuals give and receive based on need. Exchange relationships, in contrast, are more transactional and focus on equity and reciprocity. Reciprocity: a. Mutual liking increases the likelihood of attraction. b. Reciprocity involves both shared interests and personal liking. Explanation Reciprocity enhances attraction by creating a positive feedback loop where mutual liking and shared interests reinforce each other, leading to stronger interpersonal bonds. Evolutionary theory and mate selection: a. Men prioritize youth and physical attractiveness in mates. b. Women prioritize resources and status in mates. Explanation Evolutionary psychology suggests that men and women have different mate preferences due to reproductive roles. Men seek youth and beauty, while women seek resources and status. Implicit personality theory (Halo effect): c. Dionne, Burscheid, and Walster, 1972; Eagley et al., 1991 d. Attractive people are often assumed to have positive qualities beyond their appearance. c. This effect varies across cultures, with different traits being emphasized. Explanation The halo effect leads people to attribute positive characteristics to attractive individuals, such as intelligence and social skills. This perception can influence social interactions and opportunities. Attachment styles: a. John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth b. Secure attachment involves comfort with intimacy and dependence. c. Avoidant attachment involves discomfort with closeness and dependence. d. Anxious-ambivalent attachment involves fear of rejection and abandonment. e. Disorganized attachment style helicopter parent who responds to child in unpredictable ways. Explanation Attachment styles are developed based on early interactions with caregivers. Secure attachment is characterized by comfort with closeness, avoidant attachment by discomfort, and anxious-ambivalent attachment by fear of rejection. Hard to get: a. Playing hard to get can create a sense of scarcity and increase perceived value. b. Selective application of this strategy can make an individual more attractive. c. Being unavailable to most but making exceptions for certain individuals can enhance desirability. Explanation The concept of playing hard to get involves creating a sense of scarcity, which can make an individual appear more desirable. However, this strategy is effective only when applied selectively, showing interest in specific individuals while remaining unavailable to others. This selective availability can enhance attractiveness by making the individual seem special. Contrast effect: a. Perceived attractiveness is relative and influenced by surrounding individuals. b. Seeing someone less attractive can make an average person seem more attractive. c. Conversely, seeing someone more attractive can make others seem less attractive. Explanation Contrast theory explains how our perception of attractiveness is not absolute but relative to the attractiveness of others in our environment. This can affect self-esteem and social interactions. When the company we keep is perceived to be more attractive than we view ourselves that can lead to feelings of low self-esteem. At the same time if the company we keep is perceived to be less attractive than we perceive ourselves our self esteem might be elevated. Cheerleader effect: a. Being in a group can enhance an individual's perceived attractiveness. b. Assumptions about social traits like kindness and friendliness may contribute to this effect. Explanation The cheerleader effect suggests that group dynamics can enhance individual attractiveness due to perceived social validation and assumptions about positive social traits. The Color Red: A study found that men rated women wearing red as more attractive. a. This effect is linked to evolutionary signals of fertility and health. The independent variable was the color of the woman's clothing. b. Red clothing enhances perceived attractiveness due to associations with fertility. Explanation Interpersonal attraction is a complex process influenced by multiple factors such as proximity, exposure, physical characteristics, such as symmetry and adherence to cultural beauty standards, play a significant role in initial attraction. Self-fulfilling prophecy: a. The self-fulfilling prophecy affects how individuals interact based on their perceptions of attractiveness. b. Both men and women can exhibit different behaviors based on their beliefs about the attractiveness of the person they are interacting with. Explanation In relationships, if a person believes that someone is attractive, they may behave more positively towards them, which can lead to a reciprocal positive interaction. Conversely, if they perceive someone as unattractive, they might behave less favorably, which can lead to a negative interaction. Equity Theory: a. Equity is achieved when both partners receive roughly what they put into a relationship. b. In individualistic cultures, equity is a common goal, while in collectivist cultures, hierarchy and imbalance may be more acceptable. Explanation Equity theory focuses on fairness in relationships, where both partners should have a balanced ratio of rewards to costs. This balance is more emphasized in individualistic cultures. Social Exchange Theory: c. People prefer relationships where rewards exceed costs. d. Comparison level and comparison level for alternatives are standards used to evaluate relationships. Explanation Social exchange theory suggests that individuals evaluate relationships based on the rewards and costs involved. The comparison level reflects expectations from a relationship, while the comparison level for alternatives considers potential other relationships. Comparison levels: a. Rewards and costs are evaluated to determine satisfaction in a relationship.  b. Comparison levels and available alternatives influence the decision to stay or leave. c. High satisfaction, commitment, and investment increase the likelihood of staying in a relationship. d. Low satisfaction and investment, coupled with high alternatives, may lead to leaving a relationship. Explanation Individuals unconsciously evaluate their relationships based on what they gain versus what they lose. Satisfaction is derived from rewards outweighing costs. Comparison levels involve assessing the relationship against personal standards and available alternatives. High investment and commitment often result in staying, while low satisfaction and high alternatives may lead to leaving. Investment model: a. Carol Rusbolt's Investment Model b. Satisfaction: Based on the rewards and costs associated with the relationship. c. Quality of Alternatives: Fewer available alternative partners increase commitment. d. Investments: Time, effort, and shared experiences increase commitment. Explanation The Investment Model of Commitment suggests that commitment in relationships is determined by satisfaction, the quality of alternatives, and investments. Satisfaction is influenced by the perceived rewards and costs, while fewer alternatives and greater investments lead to higher commitment. Types of love: a. Beverly Fair and James Russell's Study on Types of Love b. Companionate Love: Experienced with friends and family, characterized by trust and shared interests. c. Compassionate Love: A communal relationship focusing on responding to another's needs, like a parent's care for a child. d. Romantic Love: Associated with intense emotion and sexual desire, often referred to as passionate love. Explanation Researchers categorize love into three main types: Companionate, Compassionate, and Romantic. Companionate love involves trust and shared activities, Compassionate love focuses on caring for others' needs, and Romantic love is characterized by passion and desire. Companionate Love: a. Experienced with friends and family, characterized by trust and shared interests. b. Compassionate Love: A communal relationship focusing on responding to another's needs, like a parent's care for a child. c. Romantic Love: Associated with intense emotion and sexual desire, often referred to as passionate love. Explanation Researchers categorize love into three main types: Companionate, Compassionate, and Romantic. Companionate love involves trust and shared activities, Compassionate love focuses on caring for others' needs, and Romantic love is characterized by passion and desire. ______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 14: Prosocial Behavior Prosocial Behavior: a. Prosocial behavior can be motivated by a desire to look good to others. b. It involves helping others but may also serve the individual's self-esteem. Explanation Prosocial behavior is often driven by a combination of altruistic motives and self-interest. In the class, it was discussed how people might donate more when observed by others to enhance their public image. Donation Experiment = An experiment from 1975 examined how much money people would donate anonymously versus when being watched. On average, anonymous donations were 5.5 cents, while observed donations increased to 42 cents. The experiment demonstrated that people donated more when they were being watched, suggesting a desire to appear generous. This behavior indicates that prosocial actions can be influenced by the presence of an audience. Altruism: a. Sacrificing for the welfare of others  b. Examples of altruistic behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic Explanation Altruism is demonstrated through actions that prioritize the well-being of others, often involving personal sacrifice. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many individuals displayed altruistic behavior by helping those in need. Reasons people help: a. Social reward: Being esteemed and valued by others can motivate altruistic acts. b. Personal distress: Helping others can reduce one's own distress. c. Empathic concern: A selfless motive where the intention is to enhance another person's welfare. Explanation Altruistic behavior can be motivated by different factors. Social rewards involve acting altruistically to gain esteem and recognition from others. Personal distress involves helping others to alleviate one's own discomfort. Empathic concern is a more selfless motive where the focus is on improving the welfare of others. Benefits & costs of helping: a. Equity theory emphasizes equal contribution in relationships. b. Social exchange theory views relationships as cost-benefit analyses. c. Matching hypothesis suggests people seek partners of similar attractiveness. Explanation Equity theory suggests that satisfaction in relationships comes from equal contributions by both partners. Social exchange theory posits that individuals seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs in relationships. The matching hypothesis indicates that people prefer partners who are similar in attractiveness to themselves. Person Factors a. A couple where both partners contribute equally to household chores and decision- making feels satisfied and balanced. b. Both partners share responsibilities equally. c. This balance leads to mutual satisfaction and stability. d. Imbalance can lead to dissatisfaction and conflict.  Situational Factors a. A person evaluates their relationship based on the benefits they receive versus the costs they incur, deciding whether to stay or leave. b. The individual assesses the rewards and costs of the relationship. c. If costs outweigh rewards, they may consider leaving. d. The theory highlights the transactional nature of relationships. Decision Tree: Factors Influencing Relationship Decisions: The decision to stay or leave a relationship is influenced by several factors including rewards, costs, comparisons, alternatives, and the level of investment and commitment. a. Rewards and costs are evaluated to determine satisfaction in a relationship. b. Comparison levels and available alternatives influence the decision to stay or leave. c. High satisfaction, commitment, and investment increase the likelihood of staying in a relationship. d. Low satisfaction and investment, coupled with high alternatives, may lead to leaving a relationship. Explanation Individuals unconsciously evaluate their relationships based on what they gain versus what they lose. Satisfaction is derived from rewards outweighing costs. Comparison levels involve assessing the relationship against personal standards and available alternatives. High investment and commitment often result in staying, while low satisfaction and high alternatives may lead to leaving. Pluralistic ignorance: a. Pluralistic ignorance can prevent people from helping in emergencies. b. Seeing others' initial expressions of concern can reduce pluralistic ignorance. c. Making one's need for help clear and selecting a specific person to help can overcome pluralistic ignorance. Explanation In ambiguous situations, people may not help because they assume nothing is wrong if others appear calm. Clear communication of distress and selecting a specific helper can counteract this effect. Empathy-altruism hypothesis: a. The empathy-altruism hypothesis states that feelings of empathy for another person produce an altruistic motivation to increase that person’s welfare. b. In the empathy-altruism hypothesis, the term empathy refers to feelings of compassion, sympathy, tenderness, and the like. Feel Good, Do Good: e. Mood and Helping Behavior: A person's mood can significantly influence their likelihood of engaging in helping behavior. Positive moods increase the likelihood of helping others. f. Positive moods enhance the likelihood of helping behavior. g. Finding money can elevate mood and increase the propensity to help others. Explanation The class discussed how mood affects behavior, with studies showing that people in a good mood are more likely to help others. This was illustrated by an experiment where individuals who found money were more likely to assist someone in need. Coin Finding Experiment a. Participants who found dimes were more likely to help a confederate who dropped papers in a mall. Those who found coins had an elevated mood, increasing their likelihood of helping. b. Finding money improved participants' moods, making them more likely to engage in helping behavior. c. The experiment highlighted the link between positive mood and increased prosocial actions. Feel Bad, Do Good: Negative-state relief hypothesis: a. Helping behavior can be a way to relieve negative emotions. b. People reminded of their sins are more likely to donate to alleviate guilt. Explanation The hypothesis posits that individuals may engage in helping behavior to improve their own mood by alleviating negative emotions. This was discussed in the context of people donating more when reminded of their sins, as a way to relieve guilt. Tit-for-tat: Urban overload hypothesis: a. Urban environments can be overstimulating as a result of the amount of people, noise, pollution, traffic, crime etc. b. Urban and rural settings show different levels of altruistic behavior. Explanation The class discusses how different cultural factors influence altruistic behavior. It examines the differences in altruism between urban and rural settings, noting that rural areas tend to exhibit higher levels of altruism. Difference in helping between urban and rural area: a. Altruism in Urban and Rural Settings b. Nancy Steeplay reviewed 35 studies comparing helping rates in rural and urban environments. The studies involved 17 experimental opportunities to offer assistance, such as giving the time of day, intervening in a crime, or helping an injured pedestrian. c. Steeplay's analysis showed that strangers are significantly more likely to be helped in rural communities than in urban areas. d. The effect of population size was particularly pronounced in towns with populations between 1,000 and 50,000. e. Once the population rises above 50,000, increasing population has little effect on helping behavior.