Chapter 4 Understanding academic argument.ppt

Understanding academic argument Chapter 4  Famous quotes : traditional argument I love argument, I love debate. I don't expect anyone just to sit there and agree with me, that's not their job. ~Margaret Thatcher~ The other night I ate at a real nice family restaurant. Every table had...

Understanding academic argument Chapter 4  Famous quotes : traditional argument I love argument, I love debate. I don't expect anyone just to sit there and agree with me, that's not their job. ~Margaret Thatcher~ The other night I ate at a real nice family restaurant. Every table had an argument going. ~George Carlin~ What is argument?  Everyday definitions of argument A conversation or discussion in which two or more people disagree, often angrily. A reason or set of reasons that somebody uses to show that something is true or correct.  Historical background The word “argument” is from the Latin “arguere” which means “to make clear.” Argument advances thought and makes issues clearer.  Academic argument can be understood as… …the process of establishing, through the presentation of appropriate evidence, the certainty or likelihood of a particular point of view or opinion. Why is it important to understand argument? Academic texts contain argument. Identifying and using argument is a reliable method for evaluating both sides of an issue and forming your own opinions on controversial issues. The ability to argue is one of the most important communication skills.  Opinion An opinion only becomes an informed opinion once you have considered both sides of a controversial issue and, through a rational process, weighed up the pros and cons of an issue and decided which is most valid.  Argument and critical thinking Critical thinking means thinking in the pursuit of relevant and reliable knowledge about the world. Importantly, it means thinking for oneself  Why do we need critical thinking skills? These skills better prepare us to succeed in the world. Scholars argue that to live successfully in a democracy, people must be able to think critically in order to make sound decisions about personal and civic issues. So if you want to make a significant and valuable contribution to society through your work, then you need to develop these skills.  Why do we need critical thinking skills? It is critical enquiry – an investigation of problems, asking questions, posing new answers - that challenges the status quo and finds new information. Am I a critical thinker? Am I open-minded? Do I value fair-mindedness? Do I respect evidence and reasoning? Am I able to look at an issue from a different point of view to my own? Do I value clarity and precision? Will I change my view when reason leads me to do so?  What is reflection? Essential to your development as a student Taking control of your own development “Stepping back” mentally Finding your voice Forming your identity  Reflection Thinking about *what you have experienced/thought about/read/heard *how you have experienced it/thought about/read/heard *how effectively you have experienced it/thought about/read/heard *how your thinking has changed as a result *what you need to do to improve future practice  Constantly asking yourself… What was the experience/issue that I am reflecting on? What did I already know about this experience/issue – preconceived ideas? What was/is significant about this experience/issue? Did it/something change the way I view things?  So… A person who thinks critically can ask appropriate questions Can gather relevant information Can come to reliable conclusions about the world  In scholarship: The aim is to get clarity about an issue with accuracy, precision and consistency To show sound evidence, good reasons and fairness It is part of all disciplines ranging from historical and economic thinking to scientific and moral thinking  So it is not… The mere acquisition and retention of information alone because it is the way that information is applied The possession of a set of skills alone because it is the way that skills are used  What form does it take? In scholarship: A question for investigation is identified A hypothesis formulated  Academic work… … presents ways of thinking about the world. Whether it introduces new ideas or evaluates current ideas and practices, academic arguments are, by definition arguable.  So … You can agree or disagree with them. As you think of potential ideas for your own academic writing, you should ask yourself, “What am I saying that is arguable, and who am I trying to persuade?” If you determine that the issue you are raising is not really arguable or that nobody would be persuaded to change their mind about your subject, then you may want to rethink your argument!  What is an effective academic argument? Effective argument will be well- grounded, persuasive, and significant. Effective argument requires us not merely to participate in an academic conversation, but also to contribute something of value to the discussion.  Why argument At university level, students are expected to advance the conversation in some significant way.  Understanding argument When we read we need to examine how the writer grapples with conflicting perspectives on an issue. We also need to examine the evidence that the writer uses and then respectfully consider what we think of the argument presented.  In scholarship: The aim is to get clarity about an issue with accuracy, precision and consistency To show sound evidence, good reasons and fairness It is part of all disciplines ranging from historical and economic thinking to scientific and moral thinking  Reading academic argument requires that: conflicting claims are weighed judgements about evidence are made ideas are clearly, accurately, and honestly represented the ideas of others are considered both respectfully and critically. The key concepts in constructing an argument claim reason evidence counterargument concession (agree) refutation (disagree and why)  COMPONENTS OF ARGUMENT the claim (point of view) support evidence reasoning (which links the evidence to the claim) acknowledgment of the counter-argument/s  The claim The claim is the main idea in an argument and reflects a particular point of view. Arguments have a main claim and various sub-claims.  So…. Your goal then becomes to defend this claim against other competing claims. Without a clear claim, your argument will become unfocused.  Questions to Consider in Evaluating Arguments 1. What are you claiming? 2. What reasons do you have for believing that claim? 3. On what evidence do you base these reasons? 4. What would you say to someone who said, “But what about…?”  Supporting your argument The evidence you include to strengthen your claim, and the reasoning that links the evidence to the claim is called support. support = evidence + reasoning  Types of evidence logic logic authority authority emotion emotion statistics statistics CLAIM ethics ethics examples examples analogy analogy experience experience  Differences in evidence Informal argument usually draws on soft evidence (shaded in yellow in previous slide), particularly experience, emotion and appeal to ethics. Academic writing requires hard evidence (shaded in orange) such as - statistics, examples and appeals to authority.  Types of evidence scientific findings/experimental proof facts statistics examples statements by qualified authorities  Using facts: what are reliable facts? Which ones can you use? A fact is something that is known with certainty. 1. common knowledge e.g. Men cannot bear children 2. reported facts e.g. Secondary smoke is harmful  Using facts personally experienced facts e.g. Nokia phones are easiest to use  factual generalisations: All the students in this class have cell phones. I haven’t seen one of you without one so I can assume and generalise that you all do, but this may not necessarily be the case = X  Generalizations Avoid words that state an absolute condition: all, always, never Eg: All nurses like working in large hospitals.  More examples: All men are lazy in the house and marry to ensure that they never have to do housework. Women feel the best thing they can do with their lives is to have children. Graduates are leaving South Africa as there are no work opportunities and it is dangerous.  Being aware of using assumptions An assumption is something we take for granted or presuppose. Usually it is something we previously learned and do not question. It is part of our system of beliefs. We assume our beliefs to be true and use them to interpret the world about us. We make judgments, form interpretations, and come to conclusions based on the beliefs we have formed.  Addressing the counterargument identify the counterargument acknowledge the counterargument concede (agree to) points in the counterargument (often leads to re-definition of key terms) OR Refute (disagree and say why) the counterargument  Why must you address the counter- argument? Let’s say I am arguing for the death penalty. And you, as my audience already have ideas of the cons of the death penalty and if I do not deal with your opposing views, by the end of my argument you will still be inclined to hold onto your original idea. So, addressing the counter-argument strengthens your own argument by making it more persuasive. How do you concede, without giving up?  An example would be physical education. I argue that physical education should be compulsory throughout school because it will make the general population healthier.  You then argue that teenagers often have low self- esteem and body image and physical education exacerbates that. I then say, ok – you’re right. But, we can then still enforce physical education at primary school level, if not at high school.  How does research fit in? Research is important for 3 reasons: 1. It allows you to develop ideas. 2. It allows you to refine your ideas. 3. It allows you to support your ideas.  Research = evidence Primary (direct) research: Fieldwork (hands-on): experiments, observation, interviews, focus groups Secondary (indirect) research: Texts: books, journals, magazines, newspapers, the internet Appeals to authority  In summary The goal in argument is to defend your claim as true and possible. You do this by giving reasons/evidence. Your objective is to make your case so that your reader is convinced of the reasonableness of your point of view.  When checking your argument (keep in mind)  What is the main claim?  What are the sub-claims?  Is the supporting information relevant to the claim?  What claims do you agree with, and why?  What claims do you disagree with, and why?  Are counter arguments considered?  Is there any evidence of bias on the part of the writer?  Do all the members of the group find the argument convincing? Why?  Who is the intended audience?  Does the argument effectively address the intended audience?  What do your responses to the text reveal about your concerns and values as readers?