Chapter 1: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology PDF

Chapter 1: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY is the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think about information  Problem Memory Decision Solving Making Attention...

Chapter 1: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY is the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think about information  Problem Memory Decision Solving Making Attention Reasoning Perception Language A cognitive psychologist might study how people perceive various shapes, why they remember some facts but forget others, or how they learn language. Why are many people more afraid of traveling in planes Why do you often well than in automobiles? remember people you After all, the chances of met in your childhood injury or death are much but not people you met a higher in an automobile than week ago? in a plane.  Dialectic is a developmental process where ideas evolve over time through a pattern of transformation. A THESIS IS PROPOSED. A thesis is a statement of belief.  An antithesis is a AN ANTITHES statement that IS counters a previous EMERGES. statement of belief.  A SYNTHESIS INTEGRATES THE VIEWPOINTS. A synthesis integrates the most credible features of each of two (or more) views. Philosophical Antecedents Two approaches to understanding the human mind Philosophy Physiology seeks to understand the seeks a scientific study of general nature of many life-sustaining functions in aspects of the world, in part living matter, primarily through introspection, the through empirical examination of inner ideas (observation-based) and experiences (from methods. intro-, “inward, within,” and -spect, “look”)  Philosophical Antecedents Rationalist Empiricist Acquire knowledge through Acquire knowledge via empirical thinking and logical analysis evidence Two Greek philosophers who have profoundly affected modern thinking in psychology and many other fields. Plato (a rationalist) Aristotle (An Empiricist) Rationalist believes that the route to knowledge is through thinking and logical analysis  dualism between a material body and immaterial mind or soul mechanistic explanations for the body’s functions Pineal Gland Empiricist believes that we acquire knowledge via empirical evidence (through experience and observation) would design experiments and conduct studies in which they could observe the behavior and processes of interest to them.  John Locke (1632–1704) An English philosopher who theorized that the human mind was a tabula rasa at birth, and that all human knowledge comes through experience  Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Two domains of reality: noumenal and phenomenal The phenomenal world is the world we are aware of; The noumenal world consists of things we seem compelled to believe in, but which we can never know. Psychological Antecedents Psychology as science It can be described spatially It is not too transient to observe/measure It can be manipulated experimentally It can be described mathematically  The two “fathers” of psychology? Structuralism Functionalism What are the elementary How and why does contents (structures) of the the mind work? human mind? William James (1842– Wilhelm Wundt (1832– 1920) 1910) German Psychologist Principles of Psychology Introspection (1890/1970)  seeks to understand the structure (configuration of elements) of the mind and its Structuralis perceptions by analyzing those m perceptions into their constituent components (affection, attention, memory, sensation, etc.) Example The perception of a In terms of the human flower mind Structuralists would analyze this structuralists sought to perception in terms of its deconstruct the mind into its constituent colors, geometric elementary components forms, size relations, and so on. they were also interested in how those elementary components work together to create the mind Functionalism  William James (1842–1910) A Harvard professor who established the first psychology laboratory in America Philosophy of pragmatism (1890) Pragmatism includes those who claim that an ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of accepting it, and that unpractical ideas are to be rejected.  Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949) An American comparative psychologist who studied with James. Studies the trial-and-error learning and formulation of the law of effect, and his studies with Woodworth on the transfer of training. Law of Effect Thorndike’s assertion that when certain stimulus- response are followed by pleasure, they are strengthened, while responses followed by annoyance or pain tend to be “stamped out.” a psychological principle that states that behaviors that produce a positive outcome are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors that produce a negative outcome are less likely to be repeated.  Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850– 1909) studied how people learn and remember material through rehearsal, the conscious repetition of material to be learned The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve shows that the first few repetitions result in a steep learning curve. Later repetitions result in a slower increase of remembered words. Associationism Structuralism Functionalism (Wundt) (James) Thesis Antithesis Synthesis: Associationism (Ebbinghaus & Thorndike) Behaviorism What is the relation between behavior and environment? Proponents of Behaviorism John Watson (1878–1958) B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) The “father” of believed that almost all forms of radical behaviorism human behavior, not just learning, could be explained by behavior emitted in reaction to the environment He believed that psychologists should Operant conditioning concentrate only on the study of observable behavior The Whole Is More Than the Sum of Its Parts: Gestalt Psychology We best understand psychological phenomena when we view them as organized, structured wholes. We cannot fully understand behavior when we only break phenomena down into smaller parts.  Gestalt Psychology Cognitions should play an active role in psychology (Wertheimer, Kohler) Emergence of Cognitive Psychology In the early 1950s (“cognitive revolution”) Cognitivism is the belief that much of human behavior can be understood in terms of how people think. 1950s: Development of computers Turing (1950)-(“Turing test”) a computer program would be judged as successful to the extent that its output was indistinguishable, by humans, from the output of humans (Cummins & Cummins, 2000). 1956: Artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is the attempt by humans to construct systems that show intelligence and, particularly, the intelligent processing of information (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 2003). Emergence of Cognitive Psychology In the early 1960s developments in psychobiology, linguistics, anthropology, and artificial intelligence, and reactions against behaviorism by many mainstream psychologists, converged to create an atmosphere ripe for revolution. 1970s: Concept of modularity of Mind Jerry Fodor (1973) (concept of the modularity of mind) the mind has distinct modules, or special-purpose systems, to deal with linguistic and, possibly, other kinds of information. Modularity implies that the processes that are used in one domain of processing, such as the linguistic (Fodor, 1973) or the perceptual domain (Marr, 1982), operate independently of processes in other domains.  Psychobiology: Karl Spencer Lashley (1890– 1959) considered the brain to be an active, dynamic organizer of behavior. sought to understand how the macro- organization of the human brain made possible such complex, planned activities as musical performance, game playing, and using language.  Psychobiology: Karl Spencer Lashley (1890–1959) “His monograph Brain Mechanisms and Intelligence (1929) contained two significant principles: Mass action certain types of learning are mediated by the cerebral cortex (the convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum) as a whole, contrary to the view that every psychological function is localized at a specific place on the cortex. Equipotentiality associated chiefly with sensory systems such as vision, relates to the finding that some parts of a system take over the functions of other parts that have been damaged.  Alan Turing (1912-1954) Founder of computer science, mathematician, philosopher Broke German Enigma code in WWII Openly gay in 1950s Arrested and convicted Likely committed suicide as a result  Ada, Countess of Lovelace (1815-1852) Daughter of the poet, Byron Gifted mathematician wrote first computer program – calculated sequence of Bernoulli numbers The Lovelace Objection Machines can only do what we know how to order them to do  Then and Now Witch (Wolverhampton Instrument for Teaching Computation from Harwell) 1951 CHARLI-2 2012 Cognition and Intelligence Intelligence is the capacity to learn from experience, using metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and the ability to adapt to the surrounding environment. Intelligence involves: the capacity to learn from experience the ability to adapt to the surrounding environment. Three Cognitive Models of Intelligence Carroll: Three- Stratum Model of Intelligence intelligence comprises a hierarchy of cognitive abilities comprising three strata (Carroll, 1993) Carroll: Three- Stratum Model of Intelligence Stratum III is just a single general intelligence (sometimes called g). Stratum II includes various broad abilities Stratum I includes many narrow, specific abilities In the middle stratum are fluid ability and crystallized ability. Fluid ability is speed and accuracy of abstract reasoning, especially for novel problems (Cattell, 1971). Crystallized ability is accumulated knowledge and vocabulary (Cattell, 1971).  learning and memory processes visual perception auditory perception facile production of ideas (similar to verbal fluency) speed (which includes both sheer speed of response and speed of accurate responding).  Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner intelligence comprises multiple independent constructs, not just a single, unitary construct  Gardner’s Eight Intelligences Type of Intelligence Tasks Reflecting This Type of Intelligence Linguistic intelligence Used in reading a book; writing a paper, a novel, or a poem; and understanding spoken words Logical-mathematical Used in solving math problems, in balancing a checkbook, in intelligence solving a mathematical proof, and in logical reasoning Spatial intelligence Used in getting from one place to another, in reading a map, and in packing suitcases in the trunk of a car so that they all fit into a compact space Musical intelligence Used in singing a song, composing a sonata, playing a trumpet, or even appreciating the structure of a piece of music  Gardner’s Eight Intelligences Type of Intelligence Tasks Reflecting This Type of Intelligence Bodily-kinesthetic Used in dancing, playing basketball, running a mile, or intelligence throwing a javelin Interpersonal intelligence Used in relating to other people, such as when we try to understand another person’s behavior, motives, or Emotions Intrapersonal intelligence Used in understanding ourselves—the basis for understanding who we are, what makes us tick, and how we can change ourselves, given our existing constraints on our abilities and our interests Naturalist intelligence Used in understanding patterns in nature  Robert Sternberg: The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence “Analyze…” Creative abilities are used to “Compare…” generate novel ideas. “Evaluate…” Analytical abilities ascertain whether your ideas (and those of others) are good ones. Practical abilities are used to implement the ideas and “Create…” “Apply…” persuade others of their “Invent…” “Use…” value. “Design…” “Utilize…”  Controlled experiments Research Psychobiological Case studies Methods research Naturalistic observation Self reports Computer simulations and artificial intelligence Controlled Laboratory Experiments Obtain samples of performance at a particular time and place  In an Experiment… Manipulate the independent variable The “cause” Measure the dependent variable The “effect” Control all other variables Prevent confounds Typical Independent Variables Characteristics of the situation Presence vs. absence of a stimulus Characteristics of the task Reading vs. listening to words for comprehension Characteristics of participants Age differences Typical Dependent Variables Percent correct/error rate Accuracy of mental processing Reaction time (milliseconds) Speed of mental processing  Correlational Studies Cannot infer causation Nature of relationship Positive correlation Negative correlation Strength of relationship Determined by size of “r” Example: Correlational Study An examination of the relationship between confidence and accuracy of eyewitnesses What do you think the relationship is? Positive? Negative? Strong? Weak? It is not a strong positive correlation! Many studies indicate that high confidence does not mean high accuracy Psychobiological Research investigators study the relationship between cognitive performance and cerebral events and structures. Study animal brains and human brains, using postmortem studies and various psychobiological measures or imaging techniques These techniques generally fall into three categories: Brain-damaged Monitor a Postmortem individuals and participant doing studies their deficits a cognitive task Study amnesiacs Measure brain Examine cortex with activity while a of dyslexics after hippocampus participant is death damage reciting a poem Self-Reports (Verbal Protocols, Self-Rating, Diaries) Obtain participants’ reports of own cognition in progress or as recollected An individual’s own account of cognitive processes Verbal protocol, diary study Case Studies Engage in intensive study of single individuals, drawing general conclusions about behavior In-depth studies of individuals Genie, Phineas Gage, H.M. Naturalistic observation Observe real-life situations, as in classrooms, work settings, or homes Computer simulations and artificial intelligence Simulations AI Attempt to make computers Attempt to make simulate human cognitive computers demonstrate performance on various intelligent cognitive tasks performance, regardless of whether the process researchers program resembles human computers to imitate a cognitive processing given human function or process. Basic Ideas in Cognitive Psychology 1. Empirical data and theories are both important—data in cognitive psychology can be fully understood only in the context of an explanatory theory, and theories are empty without empirical data. 2. Cognition is generally adaptive, but not in all specific instances. 3. Cognitive processes interact with each other and with noncognitive processes. 4. Cognition needs to be studied through a variety of scientific methods.  5. All basic research in cognitive psychology may lead to applications, and all applied research may lead to basic understandings. Key Themes in Cognitive Psychology  Nature versus nurture Thesis/Antithesis: Synthesis: Which is more We can explore how covariations and interactions influential in in the environment (e.g., an human cognition— impoverished environment) adversely affect someone nature or nurture? whose genes otherwise might have led to success in a variety of tasks.  Rationalism versus empiricism Thesis/Antithesis: Synthesis: How should we We can combine discover the truth theory with about ourselves and empirical methods about the world to learn the most we around us? can about cognitive phenomena. Structures versus processes Thesis/Antithesis: Synthesis: Should we study the We can explore how structures (contents, mental processes attributes, and products) of the human mind? operate on mental structures. Or should we focus on the processes of human thinking?  Domain generality versus domain specificity Thesis/Antithesis: Synthesis: Are the processes we observe We can explore which limited to single domains, or processes might be are they general across a variety of domains? domain-general and which might be domain- Do observations in one domain specific. apply also to all domains, or do they apply only to the specific domains observed?  Validity of causal inferences versus ecological validity Thesis/Antithesis: Synthesis: Should we study cognition by using highly controlled experiments that increase the probability of valid We can combine a variety of inferences regarding causality? methods, including laboratory methods and more naturalistic ones, so as Or should we use more naturalistic to converge on findings that techniques, which increase the likelihood of obtaining ecologically hold up, regardless of the valid findings but possibly at the method of study. expense of experimental control? Applied versus basic research Thesis/Antithesis: Synthesis: Should we conduct research We can combine the two into fundamental cognitive kinds of research processes? dialectically so that basic research leads to applied Or should we study ways in which to help people use research, which leads to cognition effectively in further basic research, practical situations? and so on. Biological versus behavioral methods Thesis/Antithesis: Synthesis: Should we study the brain and its We can try to synthesize functioning directly, perhaps even biological and behavioral scanning the brain while people are methods so that we performing cognitive tasks? understand cognitive phenomena at multiple levels Or should we study people’s of analysis. behavior in cognitive tasks, looking at measures such as percent correct and reaction time? TO BE SUBMITTED NEXT MEETING! 1. Draw the human brain and label its functions. Short bond paper Be creative