Psychology Past Paper PDF

INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY “Everything that irritates us about others can lead us to an understanding of ourselves” -Carl Jung What is Psychology? Psychology is the study of the mind and the behaviours that result from what goes on inside the mind. It involves asking questions about the brain and attempting to answer them through data-gathering methods Modern psychology originated in late 19th century Europe. What is the mind? The mind is: “The human consciousness that originates in the brain and is manifested especially in thought, perception, emotion, will, memory, and imagination.” ALL ABOUT TACKLING QUESTIONS 1. What is the mind? What is its relation to the brain? If the mind and the brain are not the same thing but are somehow related, how do you study what you cannot see? 2. What is consciousness? What is the self? 3. Do we have free will or are we driven by our environment, biology and nonconscious influences? 4. What is mental health and what is mental illness? What can we do about it? 5. What are dreams and what is their purpose? 6. What roles do biology (nature) and environment (nurture) play in complex human behaviours? 7. How do early childhood experiences impact one’s personality? How does the mind develop/change over time? The Four Main Fields of Study in Psychology are: ⚫Psychoanalysis (Eg. Freud, Jung) ⚫Behaviourist Psychology (Eg. Pavlov, Skinner) ⚫Humanist Psychology (Eg. Maslow, Frankl) ⚫Cognitive Psychology (Eg. Bandura, Loftus) PSYCHOANALYSIS HSP3U/C0 | Port Credit S.S. Psychoanalysis A psychological theory that believes in the treatment of mental illness through analyzing our thoughts, feelings, and our unconscious minds. They do so through techniques such as free Sigmund Freud association, hypnosis, and (1856-1939), dream interpretation. Alfred Adler (1870-1937), Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) Freud, Adler, and Jung Sigmund Freud Alfred Adler Carl Jung - 1856 to 1939 - 1870 to 1937 - 1875 to 1961 - Austrian-born neurologist - Austrian doctor - Swiss Psychiatrist - Founder of psychoanalysis - Founder of Analytical Psychology - Founder of Individual Psychology - ID, EGO, SUPEREGO, Irrational Drives, - Extraversion vs. Introversion; Importance of Early Childhood - Inferiority complex and personality development; birth order; social personality archetypes; the collective Experience, Free Association, unconscious; individuation transference, importance of dreams adjustment Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) Austrian-born neurologist and founder of Psychoanalysis Separated human consciousness into three parts: ID, EGO, SUPEREGO Irrational Drives, Importance of Early Childhood Experience, Free Association, transference, importance of dreams Some of Freud's theories were inspired by the writings of Charles Darwin (common primate ancestor) Applied Darwinism to emotional and psychological inheritances from primates PSYCHOANALYSIS - FREUD The brain is comprised of two parts: the conscious and the unconscious Unconscious: impacted by the mental process we are not aware of Unconscious used as a means of treating depression and personality disorders Use of free association, projections, and dreams to discover our unconscious Freud’s Model of Consciousness Freud’s Model of Consciousness The mind is divided into three parts: our conscious mind, preconscious mind, and unconscious mind. Conscious Mind: All the things you are currently aware of and are thinking about. Preconscious Mind: Also known as subconscious mind. Latent parts of the brain that are readily available to the conscious mind, although not currently in use. Unconscious Mind: Feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. However, there's more to the mind than just that, according to Freud: Freud added his idea of the id, ego and superego Freud’s Model of Consciousness Freud identiﬁed three different parts of human consciousness: ID: Basic, primitive/biological needs and impulses (aggression, sex); selﬁsh; childish; operates on pleasure principle; irrational; operates at unconscious level SUPEREGO: Your “conscience”; Learned ideals and morals (parents, school, religion, cultural values); strives for perfection; internalized norms; operates mostly at preconscious level EGO: Rational part of the mind; operates on conscious and preconscious level; linked to the outside world with senses; uses the reality principle; mediates between the impulses of the ID and the morality of the superego. The EGO’s attempt to resolve these conﬂicts between our ID and our SUPEREGO is our personality! Freud’s Theory of the Mind: The Id Entirely unconscious Basic instincts and biological drives needed for life ○ Eg. Hunger/thirst, aggression, sexual drives Seeks pleasure and avoids pain Often immoral ○ ie. The devil on your shoulder Freud’s Theory of the Mind: The Superego ⚫ Partly conscious, mostly unconscious ⚫ Forms in childhood ⚫ Evolves from rewards for good behaviour and punishments for bad behaviour ⚫ ie. The angel on your shoulder ⚫ Moral code/social conscience ⚫ Shaped by cultural values and principles of society Freud’s Theory of the Mind: The Ego Mostly conscious Linked to the outside world through senses Rational and decision making self ○ ie. Taking care of a need when an appropriate object is found Balances the desires of the id and demands of the superego Defense Mechanisms The EGO uses defense mechanisms to distort reality in order to deal with the anxiety caused by the conﬂict between the urges of the ID and the morality of the SUPEREGO. More on these later… But…if we need to access the unconscious mind to treat our conscious mind…and the unconscious mind in inaccessible to our conscious mind…then how does anything get resolved?! Psychoanalysis: Techniques and Treatments Free Association - Word Association - The Rorschach Test Hypnosis - Suppress the ego - Access the ID and the superego Dreams - Ego’s defenses lowered so ID and Superego could be accessed Let’s Start with Free Association Grab a pen and paper! CAT FIRE DOOR RED WOODS HEART FEAR RORSHACH TEST Hermann Rorschach (1884-1922) - Swiss Freudian Psychiatrist and Psychoanalyst - Rorschach Test: Projective test designed to reflect unconscious parts of the personality onto inkblot stimuli - Individuals are shown 10 inkblots and asked to report on what objects/figures they see How does the test work? Freud in popular culture… Hypnosis Was conducted couches, which is why psychotherapy is still associated with couches today Freud thought that when people were hypnotized, their ego would be supressed and they could access feelings or thoughts from their unconscious mind (the id and superego) Dream Interpretation - Freud (1900) considered dreams to be the royal road to the unconscious, just like hypnosis, he felt that during dreams, the ego’s defenses were lowered and repressed thoughts and feelings could surface. - Freud believed that dreams were mainly about sex Male sexual symbols = balloons, airplanes, missiles, and rockets Female sexual symbols = pits, caves, bottles, boxes, trunks, jars, suitcases, pockets, ships, the mouth *** Freud’s interpretation of these symbols was highly subjective Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development Psychosexual stages are developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality. Each psychosexual stage has its own unique challenges or tasks and the way that they are handled shapes personality Fixation is a failure to move from one stage to another as expected and can be caused by excessive gratiﬁcation or excessive frustration of these needs. Castration Anxiety/ Penis Envy Freud believed that boys learn right from wrong as a result of subconscious memories from early human experiences of castration as punishment Having no external genitalia to protect, girls never acquire morality and need guidance from fathers and, later, their husbands. Girls also suﬀered from penis envy which made them feel anxious and jealous of men What assumptions does Freud make about human sexuality? Discuss with the person beside you. Next, we’ll watch a TEDTalk called “History vs. Freud” Also… When female analysts objected to the penis-envy hypothesis, Freud accused them of being in denial. This created a “heads-I-win-tails-you-lose” scenario: -If you agree that you suffer from penis envy, he’s right, and if you disagree, he’s still right! Karen Horneye (1885 - 1952) & Neo-Freudians - Feminist neo-Freudian psychologist - Followed Freud’s basic concepts about the mind but: - Did not believe personality was strongly inﬂuenced by sexual conﬂicts in childhood - Felt Freudian theories did not represent females - Founder of Feminine Psychology - Highlights gender bias in traditional psychology and offers alternative theories to those biases - Women were pushed by society and culture to depend on men for love and status - Studies issues confronted by females during their lifetimes Alfred Adler - Broke off from Freud and developed Personal Psychology. Humans seek ALL kinds of power, not just sexual! Focused on Social Equality - First to break away from the use of a couch to the use of two chairs Mental Health as a Feeling of Human Connectedness - Emphasized the importance of nurturing feelings of belonging and striving for superiority Feelings of inferiority or superiority when these qualities are underdeveloped Inferiority Complex - Advanced and permanent state of discouragement - Could result in defeatism or overcompensation Birth Order - Children more or less likely to have particular traits based on their relationship to siblings Sibling Order According to Adler, based on your family situation and, speciﬁcally, your relationship to your other siblings, you were more likely to develop a set of speciﬁc traits and characteristics. Here is a video that looks at the impact of sibling order on personality development. Carl Jung & Humanism Like Adler, Jung split from Freud Inﬂuenced by Eastern philosophy and ideas Developed his own theories involving: Collective Unconscious Archetypes Personality types Introverts & Extroverts vs. Social Distancing What is the Collective Unconscious? Jungian Archetypes - The Innocent - The Everyman - The Hero - The Rebel - The Explorer - The Creator - The Ruler - The Magician - The Lover - The Caregiver - The Jester - The Sage Introverts and Extroverts Introverts: - Inner-directed personality type - Preoccupied with the internal world of their own thoughts, feelings, and experiences - Contemplative; aloof; recluse Extroverts: - Interested in the external world of people and things - Outgoing; talkative; friendly A Video on Extroverts and Introverts CARL JUNG Four Functional Personality Types - Introverted or Extroverted - Thinking (use of Reason) vs. Feeling (Use of Emotion) - Sensation (Use of Sensory Input) vs. Intuition (Use of perception) - Jung believed we consciously gravitated toward one functional type while or unconscious gravitated to the opposite - Eventually, theories used in the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Take the Jung & Briggs Myers Personality Quiz Here & Freudian Defense Mechanisms Defense mechanisms are “psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings.” Defense mechanisms are employed to protect our egos from “feelings of anxiety or guilt”. They are unconscious and we are not aware of them. THERE ARE MANY TYPES OF DEFENCE MECHANISMS… 1. DENIAL: When reality is too unpleasant, we may ignore it. Individuals may consistently ignore criticism, or reality. 2. RATIONALIZATION: An excuse we invent to explain a failure, loss, error or our bad behaviour. It’s used to justify our actions. Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive consistency: Most people want to avoid attitudes that conﬂict with each other, and doing so results in a more satisfying lifestyle We change our attitudes as a result of the discomfort we feel when two attitudes conﬂict Cognitive dissonance theory: People try to avoid conﬂict between what they think and what they do. Origins – Leon Festinger Inconsistencies between thoughts or between thoughts and actions = discomfort Leads to change in thoughts/behaviour e.g. smoking 2. SOUR GRAPES: A form of rationalization. When we cannot reach a goal, we tell ourselves and perhaps others that it was not a worthwhile goal. 3. DISPLACEMENT: When we lash out at someone because we have suppressed anger or frustration from an earlier situation. The person we attack has nothing to do with our anger and frustration. 4. REPRESSION: When we push unpleasant urges or thoughts out of our conscious minds and into our unconscious. We are unaware of these repressed thoughts. But they can resurface as physical problems, sarcasm or unkind behavior. 5. PROJECTION: When we see negative traits and feeling in other people that we see in ourselves but cannot openly admit it. 6. REACTION FORMATION: Someone might try to deny certain impulses by exhibiting the opposite behaviour. For example, someone might feel guilty that they no longer love their spouse, so they spoil them with gifts. 7. REGRESSION: When problems seem too big for us to handle, we may go back to the behaviour patterns from an earlier period of our lives (sulking, temper tantrums). 8. SUBLIMATION: Sublimation is the channeling of unacceptable impulses, thoughts and emotions into more acceptable ones. For instance, when a person has sexual impulses they would like not to act upon, they may instead focus on rigorous exercise. Humor can be a way of sublimating by channeling unacceptable impulses or thoughts into a joke. Watch the following clips and determine which defense mechanism is most likely being used. Justify your response. Not all defense mechanisms will be used and some may be used more than once. Behavioural Psychology HSP3U/C0 | PCSS An Interesting Psychological Test… The Marshmallow Experiment Behavioural Psychology - A school of thought that asserts that psychology can only study and manipulate what can be seen and/or measured--behaviour! - Emphasis on empirical evidence, observable behaviours, and scientifically proven intervention procedures - Involves conducting experiments and gathering data to understand observable behaviours and phenomena in humans and animals John B. Watson - American psychologist and founder of Behaviourism - Believed in the objective study of behaviour rather than the subjective study of consciousness - Viewed humans as akin to animals in terms of behaviour in that they could be predicted and controlled - Overhauled Psychology; rejected Freud’s introspective research methods What is Behaviourism? - A school of thought that explains human and animal behaviour as a response to external physical stimuli and reinforcements. - Focuses on observable, measurable behavior in response to environmental stimuli rather than internal events (thoughts, emotions) - Famous behaviourists include: Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), Edward Thorndike (1874–1949), and B.F. Skinner (1904–90) - Strict behaviourists believe all behaviors are the result of experience; specific behaviours can be achieved with any person given the right conditioning; thus, they conduct experiments and gather data, measure, and analyze actions and reactions Psychological Behaviourism 01 02 03 Reﬂex from Stimulus Reinforcement and Current Motivational Punishment States All human and animal behaviour could be explained via an interaction of the above variables. Famous Behavioural Psychologists IVAN PAVLOV B.F. SKINNER (1849-1936) (1904-1990) Russian Psychologist American Famous for his experiment on dogs Experimented on rats and pigeons Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Classical Conditioning 1. Unconditioned stimulus = unconditioned response 2. Neutral Stimulus + unconditioned stimulus = unconditioned response 3. Conditioned Stimulus = Conditioned Response Classical Conditioning How might someone’s behaviour be altered by classical conditioning? Operant Conditioning Experiment Time ! We need two extroverted volunteers. B.F. Skinner & Operant Conditioning Process that attempts to modify behavior through the use of positive and negative reinforcement, causing the subject to make an association between a particular behavior and a consequence. What is the difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning? Classical conditioning associates involuntary behavior with a stimulus; operant conditioning associates voluntary action with a consequence. Operant Conditioning A process that attempts to modify behaviour through the use of positive and negative reinforcement This creates an association between a particular behaviour and a consequence, whether it is positive or negative The subject will adapt its behaviour in order to elicit positive reinforcement or avoid negative reinforcement Operant Conditioning Being given a reward to increase Being given some bad a desired behaviour consequence when the Eg. Getting candy when you are behaviour is not desired polite Eg. Paying a fine for speeding Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment A positive stimuli A negative stimuli (reward) is added to (punishment) is added to increase the desired decrease the undesired behaviour behaviour Negative Reinforcement Negative Punishment A negative stimuli A positive stimuli (punishment) is removed (reward) is removed to to increase the desired decrease the undesired Removing something bad behaviour behaviour Removing something good to increase a desirable behaviour decrease undesired behaviour Eg. Being able to leave time out Eg. Towing an illegally parked when you stop screaming car Operant Conditioning Knowing about operant conditioning can be useful… Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning Summarized Classical and Operant Conditioning in Your Life Can YOU think of and example of… Classical Conditioning in your life? Operant Conditioning in your life? List the: List the: 1. Unconditioned Stimulus 1. Positive Punishment 2. Unconditioned Response 2. Positive Reinforcement 3. Conditioned Stimulus 3. Negative Punishment 4. Conditioned Response 4. Negative Reinforcement COGNITIVE AND HUMANIST PSYCHOLOGY HSP3U/C0 | de Medeiros PCSS | Fall 2022 Cognitive Psychology Scientific study of the mind as an information processor of data from the outside world. It studies how we learn, process, and remember. Unlike Behaviourism, considers mental states such as: beliefs, motivations, and desires. ALBERT BANDURA (1925 - 2021) - Canadian-American psychologist - Introduced the Social Cognitive Theory: Looks at how personality is impacted by social influence (observing others, past experiences, and outside media influences) - Bobo Doll Experiment - Diagnose aggression early to avoid adult criminals ELIZABETH LOFTUS (1944 - ) American Psychologist The Misinformation Effect Recall of memories becomes less accurate due to post-event information Retroactive Interference False Memories: Repressed memories created through the power of suggestion. Lost in the Mall experiment. HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY - Based on theory that everyone has the potential to contribute to society and be a good person - Humanistic Psychology is constructivist and based on two assumptions 1. Studying people must be done from a holistic perspective (taking their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours into consideration). ○ This led to the belief that the patient should be involved in their own recovery 2. Psychological research must also focus on “functionining humans” who are working to be creative and fulfill their potential - Achieving happiness is often dependent on achieving, or giving yourself the licence to investigate and pursue your own deepest interests and desires ABRAHAM MASLOW (1908 - 1970) - American Psychologist and Philosopher - Founder of humanistic psychology - Goal of psychotherapy is self- actualization and integration; development of human potential - Developed the idea of transcendence, Self-Actualization, and the Hierarchy of Needs - Theories still influential “Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels of human consciousness, behaving and relating, as ends rather than means, to oneself, to significant others, to human beings in general, to other species, to nature, and to the cosmos” - Maslow, 1971 SELF ACTUALIZATION - MASLOW The full realization of one’s creative, intellectual, and social potential through internal drive (versus for external rewards like money, status, or power). Maslow believed that fulfilling the needs in order would allow someone to become a self-actualized. ABRAHAM MASLOW Prior to Humanistic Psychology and Maslow, Psychologists were studying people who were “unwell.” Maslow and other Humanistic Psychologists studied people who were well! In fact, they studied those who were“self actualized” to see what they were doing right Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs MASLOW AND TRANSCENDENCE What is Transcendence? “Peak experiences” in which one looks beyond their own personal concerns and sees from a higher perspective. These experiences often bring strong positive emotions like joy, peace, and a well-developed sense of awareness Developmental stage that represents meeting the need to feel fulfilled and have a sense of purpose To have transcendence you must have: ○ Vulnerability: the awareness of one’s own mortality that develops with age, health issues, and crises. ○ Well-being: the sense of being healthy, whole, and generally fulfilled and satisfied with one’s state MAJOR CRITICISMS OF MASLOW - Maslow's theory also does not account for differences between individualist and collectivist cultures - A 1976 paper by Wahba and Bridwell reviewed the research on Maslow and found little support for the accuracy of the hierarchy - Physiological and safety needs are the most basic; however, in order to meet most of these needs, an individual first requires to establish social connections. - Some people may be deprived of their lower level needs but may still strive for self actualisation needs. - Difficult to test self-actualization - Assumes that needs are hierarchical and that once met, they will go away; however, most human needs are pluralistic in nature and can exist across different levels simultaneously. REVISED VERSION FROM 2010 STUDY: Parenting (top) Mate retention Mate acquisition Status/esteem Affiliation Self-Protection Immediate physiological needs (base) Do you agree or disagree with these changes? CARL ROGERS (1902 - 1987) Applied Humanism to Psychotherapy Focuses on the present and the future rather than the past (we behave the way that we do because of the way that we perceive situations) More value to conscious rather than unconscious Founder of Client-centered therapy ○ Therapist facilitates the client’s self-discovery, understanding, acceptance, and growth ○ Focuses on the potential of each person to realize their own growth in self-awareness and self-fulfillment The basis for modern day psychotherapy Actualizing Tendency: the idea that self-actualization is humans’ one, underlying, ongoing, and innate motive SELF ACTUALIZING & THE FULLY FUNCTIONING PERSON 1. Open to All Experiences - Accept positive and negative for what they are; use as opportunity for personal growth 2. Existential Living - Be present; live in the moment; connect with experiences as they happen, without preconceptions 3. Trusting of Feelings - Trust that your decisions are the right ones for you at that time 4. Creativity - Thinking and risk-taking; adaptability; seeking of new experiences 5. Fulfillment With Life - Satisfaction and contentment with life not as an end goal but as a process of new experiences SELF ACTUALIZING TESTS Self-Actualization Self-ActualizationTests Tests- -Scott ScottBarry BarryKaufman Kaufman Visit the website above and check out the self actualization tests. *no need to provide your email or personal information* 1. Which tests did you try? 2. What do you think of these tests? 3. Are they accurate? Useful? PERSON-CENTRED THERAPY Puts the individual at the heart of the treatment. Believes that the client, not the therapist, has the answers they need to move towards achieving their full potential Encourages them to lead the discussions and things they chose to talk about with guidance from the therapist. Client-Centered Therapy Model How does this compare and Fun Fact: Carl Rogers is actually the first to use contrast with Psychoanalysis? the word “client” with reference to Psychology! VIKTOR FRANKL - Austrian neurologist, psychiatrist, and Holocaust survivor - Felt there was something missing from Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud and Sex, Adler and Social Power) - Founder of Logotherapy, informed by his experiences during the Holocaust, where he observed that those who survived were more likely to have meaning in their lives - Came to believe that the root of all human motivation was a need for meaning - Principles of Logotherapy: 1. Human life has meaning, 2. Human beings long to experience their own sense of life meaning 3. Humans have the potential to experience meaning under any and every circumstance LOGOTHERAPY “Physiologically, logotherapy is an effective way to cope with suffering and physical pain or loss. Spiritually, logotherapy demonstrates that life has meaning or purpose when people suffer from the “existential vacuum” that we experience as boredom, apathy, emptiness, and depression” - V. Frankl Fundamental Principles 1. Freedom of Will: Humans are free to shape their own life within limits of specific possibilities. The Client, therefore, has autonomy in the face of somatic or psychological illness. 2. Will to Meaning: Humans are free to achieve goals and purposes. Mental illness occurs when individuals cannot realize their will to meaning. 3. Meaning in Life: Meaning is an objective reality rather than an illusion or personal perception and humans have the freedom and responsibility to bring forth their best possible selves by realizing the meaning of the moment in every situation LOGOTHERAPY - DEREFLECTION - A technique used when a person is overly self-absorbed on an issue or attainment of a goal - Re-direct (dereﬂecting) attention away from the self (or the problem) so person can fully become whole by thinking about others Potential Questions: - “What would your life be like without X in your life?” - “If everything went perfectly in your life, what would it look like?” LOGOTHERAPY – PARADOXICAL INTENTION - Fear is removed when action/intention is focused on what is feared most - Use humour and ridicule to have the client wish for the thing they fear the most, thus removing the fear from their intention and relieving the anxious symptoms - The idea is that humour and ridicule can be useful when fear is paralyzing - Effective technique to use with phobias, fears, and anxiety. - E.G. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, students have to face their worst fears and turn them into something laughable LOGOTHERAPY – SOCRATIC DIALOGUE - Use of the person’s own words as a method of self discovery. By listening intently to what the person says, the therapist can point out specific patterns of words or word solutions to the patient and let the patient see new meaning in them. - Process allows person to realize the answer lies within them and is just waiting to be discovered. REFLECTIONS ON HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 1. In your opinion, what is the most important part of humanism? 2. Which aspects of humanism develop from psychoanalysis? 3. Which of the three humanistic psychologists are you the most drawn to and why? 4. What parts of the lesson does not make sense to you? 5. What 2 questions do you have about humanistic psychology? Positive Psychology and the Happiness Model “is the scientific study of the strengths that enable individuals and communities to thrive. The field is founded on the belief that people want to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives, to cultivate what is best within themselves, and to enhance their experiences of love, work, and play.” The Science of Happiness: A TED Talk - Impact bias - Natural versus Synthetic Happiness Observation Methods in Psychology HSP3U/C0 | PCSS 2022 Observation Methods in Psychology 1. Controlled Observation 2. Naturalistic Observation 3. Participant Observation Controlled Observation - The researcher codes behaviour by systematically classifying what they observe into distinct categories using an established scale - The categories on the schedule are coded so that the data collected can be easily counted and turned into statistics. - Sometimes the behavior of participants is observed through a two-way mirror or secret ﬁlming, but controlled observations are usually overt - The researcher explains the research aim to the group, the participants know they are being observed, etc. - Usually non-participant (the researcher avoids any direct contact with the group) Controlled Observation Example: Mary Ainsworth used a behavior schedule to study how infants responded to brief periods of separation from their mothers. Infant's interaction behaviors directed toward the mother were measured: 1. Proximity and contacting seeking 2. Contact maintaining 3. Avoidance of proximity and contact 4. Resistance to contact and comforting The observer noted down the behavior displayed during 15-second intervals and scored the behavior for intensity on a scale of 1 to 7. Controlled Observation Controlled Observation Strengths Limitations - Testing for reliability is easy because controlled - Can lack validity due to the Hawthorne observations can be easily replicated by using the effect/demand characteristics (when same observation schedule. participants know they are being watched - Obtained data is easier and quicker to analyze as they may act differently) it is quantitative (i.e. numerical), making it less time-consuming compared to naturalistic observations. - Fairly quick to conduct which means that many observations can take place within a short amount of time. - This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in the ﬁndings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population. Naturalistic Observation - A research method that involves observing and studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural surroundings. - The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can. - In unstructured observations, the researcher records all relevant behavior without system. - The approach is usually used as a pilot study to see what type of behaviors would be recorded. - Compared with controlled observations it is like the difference between studying wild animals in a zoo and studying them in their natural habitat. Naturalistic Observation Strengths Limitations - By being able to observe the ﬂow of behavior - Often conducted on a micro (small) scale and may lack a representative sample (biased in relation to age, in its own setting studies have greater gender, social class or ethnicity). This may result in the ecological validity. ﬁndings lacking the ability to be generalized to wider - Often used to generate new ideas because it society. gives the researcher the opportunity to - Less reliable since other variables cannot be controlled, making it difficult for another researcher to repeat the study the total situation it often suggests study in exactly the same way. avenues of inquiry not thought of before. - The researcher needs to be trained to be able to recognize aspects of a situation that are psychologically signiﬁcant and worth further attention. - We do not have manipulations of variables (or control over extraneous variables) which means cause and effect relationships cannot be established. Participant Observation - A variant of natural observations where the researcher becomes part of the group they are studying - The researcher can be either covert or overt - Covert: The researcher's real identity and purpose are kept concealed - Overt: Researcher’s true identity and purpose is revealed to the group and they have permission to observe Participant Observation Strengths Limitations - Allows the psychologist to be as close to the - Can be difficult to get time / privacy for subject as possible, usually with the ability recording. - For example, with covert observations researchers to ask clarifying and follow up questions can’t take notes openly as this would blow their cover. This means they have to wait until they are alone and rely on their memory. This is a problem as they may forget details and are unlikely to remember direct quotations. - Researcher may become too involved, lose objectivity, and show bias. E.G. They may “see” what they expect/want) to see and selectively report information instead of noting everything they observe, reducing the validity of the research Sampling Methods The three main sampling methods are: - Event sampling. The observer decides in advance what types of behavior (events) she is interested in and records all occurrences. All other types of behavior are ignored. - Time sampling. The observer decides in advance that observation will take place only during speciﬁed time periods and records the occurrence of the speciﬁed behavior during that period only. - Instantaneous (target time) sampling. The observer decides in advance the pre-selected moments when observation will take place and records what is happening at that instant. Everything happening before or after is ignored. Ethical Issues in Psychology Why human experimentation? Sometimes the only way to understand a situation is to study it by reconstructing it in a controlled environment Recreating the same or similar conditions can establish whether results are valid Experiments allow the researcher to manipulate a variable of interest while controlling other variables Psychology requires experimentation to further its depth of knowledge. Most psychological experiments have to be performed on human beings. Unethical Experimentation When experiments use human subjects, there is a potential of harm to the participants Early days of psychology saw some experiments go too far There was little regard for the people involved or for the foreseeable harm that resulted More unethical experiments… Little Albert Harlow The Declaration of Helsinki, 1975-2013 A set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation developed for the medical community by the World Medical Association (WMA) Not a legally binding document, but has influenced national regulations of many countries The Canadian Psychology Association (CPA) The CPA is responsible for the Code of Ethics for Psychologists in Canada Operates on these four principles: I. Respect for the Dignity of Persons II. Responsible Caring III. Integrity of Relationships IV. Responsibility to Society Unethical Experiments Read the 10 unethical experiment cases on pg. 236-237 of Social Science. Rank them from to 10 in terms of how unethical they were. (There is a handout on Google Classroom to help you do this). Be prepared to discuss your choices. The Teenage Brain Understanding What it is Like to Be You HSP3U/C0 | Fall 2022 de Medeiros | PCSS Have you Ever Wondered.. …why you started ﬁghting with your parents a lot more when you became an adolescent…? or …why you want to sleep in until noon every day, but can’t fall asleep until after midnight. As it turns out, two important parts of the brain undergo a dramatic transformation at your age 1. The Prefrontal Cortex 2. The Amygdala Introducing the Prefrontal Cortex Where is it? The prefrontal cortex is located in the front of your brain, behind the forehead What does it do? Working memory; learning; remembering; thinking; planning, prioritizing, and problem solving; motor skills; attention; judgment; and logical thinking The Amygdala Where is it? - Located right next to the hippocampus in the medial temporal lobe What does it control? Emotions (fear, anger, etc.) Long term memory in general, especially memories of emotional events It sends information to the prefrontal cortex Reading emotions on the faces of others Eg. A scary experience is remembered using the amygdala. The amygdala then sends this information to the prefrontal cortex, where the logical part of the brain tries to make sense of the experience. Changes in Sleep Patterns Teens starting waking up later than they did when they were younger and they want to sleep in later. Teens also need more sleep than they did when they were younger. A teenager needs 9.25 hours of sleep to maintain proper brain functioning (learning, memory, motor skills). Effects on Teenage Behaviour Impulsive behaviour Stubbornness Taking risks Trying new things Getting angry at your parents/ siblings Controlling temper Thinking about sex Want to be independent Center of attention This means that, at times, teens can: think illogically lack focus take unnecessary risks misread the facial expressions of others be very emotional And now, a short documentary…Enjoy! CBC -The Nature of Things with David Suzuki - - Surviving :) The Teenage Brain THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SWEARING Some of the video clips shown during this presentation may contain offensive language. These clips are used for academic purposes only and are NOT meant to encourage profanity in the classroom in any way. YOU HAVE BEEN WARNED. SOME QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. What is your opinion of swearing? Do you find it to be rude? Natural? Can it ever be too much? 2. Do you swear often? 3. What factors impact how much you swear? 4. How does swearing make you feel? HOW MANY SWEAR WORDS CAN YOU THINK OF IN A MINUTE? DO NOT SAY THEM OUT LOUD. SWEARING IS SOCIAL LET’S START OFF WITH A BAD WORD. Profanity can be therapeutic AF CULTURAL FACTORS IMPACTING SWEARING - The age of the “swearer” - Some words are acceptable for adults to use but not children - Emotional state of the “swearer” - Time (in History) and place (country) impact whether or not words are acceptable - Certain words are acceptable in one country but highly offensive in another - Certain words were acceptable earlier in History but are not acceptable now…and vice versa! - Sex and gender norms - Men are proven to swear more often than women - Social Context - It’s usually OK to swear around your friends but it’s not OK to swear in class…or in a place of worship… - Relationship to Listeners - We’re more likely to swear around people that we know compared to strangers Can you think of any other factors that might impact swearing? CURSING AND SWEARING! DID YOU KNOW THERE’S A DIFFERENCE? THERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT TYPES OF CURSING 1. Descriptive Swearing and Emphatic Swearing → “That’s #$%@ing gross” or “This brownie is #$%@ing delicious” 2. Idiomatically → “That’s a pain in the a#%” 3. Abusively → “$%@# you!” 4. Cathartically → “Oh, for #$%@’s sake!” EMPHATIC CURSING Meant to highlight a point PROFANITY Consider: How many grammatical categories can we put the “F” word into?! (Without saying it out loud, please!) IT’S A GOOD THING! (NO, REALLY!) Profanity can provide catharsis CURSING CAN MAKE YOU STRONGER! Profanity and Stress But my parents/guardians said… Profanity and Honesty PROFANITY AND DISHONESTY PROFANITY & SOCIAL SITUATIONS When profanity becomes harmful PROFANITY EXPERIMENTS It startsItwith startsice water… with ice water … YOU CAN EXPERIENCE LESS PAIN IF YOU CURSE! INCREASE HEART RATES… SWEARING AND GAMING AGGRESSION First person shooter First Person games: Shooter Games Explo_e _ight Gordon Ramsay and his potty Gordon Ramsay and his potty mouth mouth An Introduction to Mental Health Stigma and Mental Health “A mark or disgrace of discredit” Definitions of stigma “A distinguishing mark or characteristic of a bad or objectionable kind” throughout history... “A mark made upon the skin by burning with a hot iron, as a token of infamy or subjection; a brand.” Stigma always involves at least one of these three: STEREOTYPE PREJUDICE DISCRIMINATION What is Stigma? Stigma is negative attitudes (prejudice) and negative responses (discrimination) that can make a person feel unwanted and shamed (stigmatized). People living with mental illness often experience stigma. What is the difference between mental illness and physical illness? Nothing: They are simply subsets of something called “illness”. Many mental illness have visible physical symptoms as well (Eg. MDD and vomiting). 1. Feelings of happiness and satisfaction with life (emotional There are well-being) three main components 2. Positive individual functioning of mental (psychological well-being) health: 3. Positive societal functioning (social well-being). seriously affects the well-being of those who experience it affects people while they are ill, How does stigma while they are in treatment and affect people with even when a mental health mental illness? problem is a distant memory stops many people from seeking the treatment they need Answer: All of the above People with mental health issues can have difficulty: finding work being in a steady, long-term relationship acquiring decent housing being socially included in mainstream society Just when mentally ill people need the most support, it is often unavailable because of discrimination. What if we said the same things to people with physical illnesses that are said to people with mental illnesses? BUT… “Most people who experience mental health problems recover fully, or are able to live with and manage them, especially if they get help early on.” The Media & Mental Illness 72.1% of adult characters depicted as mentally ill in prime-time television drama injured or killed others Sometimes we don’t even realize it! How can you help end stigma? Speak up about stigma to friends, family and colleagues Be aware of your own attitudes and judgments Support organizations that fight stigma All of these things can help end stigma Mental Health and Types of Mental Disorders What is Mental Health? Mental health refers to our emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how we think, feel, and act, handle stress, relate to others, and make choices. Mental health is important at every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood. Many factors contribute to mental health problems, including: 1. Biological factors, such as genes or brain chemistry 2. Life experiences, such as trauma or abuse 3. Family history of mental health problems Mental Health is different from Mental Illness What is Mental Health? The Canadian Mental Health Association (2021) outlines these key characteristics to help define one’s mental health: Ability to enjoy life: Can you live in the moment and appreciate the “now?” Are you able to learn from the past and plan for the future without dwelling on things you can’t change or predict? Resilience: Are you able to bounce back from hard times? Can you manage the stress of a serious life event without losing your optimism and a sense of perspective? Balance: Are you able to juggle the many aspects of your life? Can you recognize when you might be devoting too much time to one aspect, at the expense of others? Are you able to make changes to restore balance when necessary? Self-actualization: Do you recognize and develop your strengths so that you can reach your full potential? Flexibility: Do you feel, and express, a range of emotions? When problems arise, can you change your expectations – of life, others, yourself – to solve the problem and feel better? TYPES OF MENTAL DISORDERS Mental and emotional disorders are much more common than you think. ➔ 1 out of 4 adults are affected. ➔ 1 out of 10 children are affected. What is Mental Illness? Mental illness is the reduced ability for a person to function effectively over a prolonged period of time because of: Significant levels of distress Changes in thinking, mood or behaviour Feelings of isolation, loneliness and sadness Mental illness usually begins during adolescence and young adulthood but can be experienced by all people regardless of: sex, age, culture, education level, income Mental illness is not the same as feeling distressed because of normal reactions to difficult situations. But those with mental illness feel distress regularly. DSM-5 CATEGORIES OF MENTAL DISORDERS Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders A system to classify and diagnose mental disorders BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS Complete this table using the PPT and your textbook to assist you. TYPE OF BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIAL MENTAL FACTORS FACTORS FACTORS DISORDER MOOD DISORDER S MOOD DISORDERS A mental disorder involving a disabling disturbance in emotional state Mood = the overall feeling that affects our perception of the world and influences how we approach things. TYPES OF MOOD DISORDERS 1. DEPRESSION Lasting and continuous, sad mood or loss in pleasure –Withdrawal from friends and family –Changes in sleeping and eating patterns –Sadness and/or lack of motivation TYPES OF MOOD DISORDERS 2. MANIA Elevated mood involving intense elation or irritability –Overly excited –Extremely active –Easily distracted –Unrealistically high opinion of themselves –Insensitivity to negative consequences TYPES OF MOOD DISORDERS 3. MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER AND at least 4 of the following: Depressed mood for at Feeling tired/run down least 2 weeks Irritable OR Sleep problems Loss/change of appetite Loss of interest in usual Weight loss/gain activities Feelings of guilt or worthlessness Difficulties concentrating TYPES OF MOOD DISORDERS 4. BIPOLAR When mood fluctuates/swings between depression and mania Feelings are unrelated to current situation CONTRIBUTING FACTORS BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL Combination of different influences BIOLOGICAL FACTORS GENES AND BRAIN CHEMISTRY Genetics - Will run in the family - Increased chance Decreased amount of neurotransmitters - Serotonin - Noradrenaline PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO STRESS AND DYSFUNCTIONAL WAYS OF THINKING Exposure to stressful life events Negative thinking – Results in decreased mood SOCIAL FACTORS POVERTY AND SOCIAL STRESS Lack basic necessities of life Difficulties in interpersonal relationships – Social stress- produced by relationships with others – Lead to sense of helplessness and hopelessness PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS Psychotic disorder - is used to describe a group of disorders characterised by psychosis. Psychosis - is a condition in which an individual experiences loss of contact with reality. – Thinking is disorganised – Difficulty distinguishing between what is real and self-generated perceptions. – Difficulty making sense of their thoughts, feelings and behaviours TYPES OF PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS 1. SCHIZOPHRENIA Schizophrenia: A brain disorder characterised by persistent symptoms of psychosis involving disturbances and disorganisation of thoughts, perceptions, feelings and behaviour. TYPES OF PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS 1. SCHIZOPHRENIA Schizophrenia involves: – Altered perception of reality (delusions, hallucinations) – Seeing or hearing things that don’t exist – Beliefs that are odd or not true – Speaking in strange and confusing ways THE ‘TWO-HIT’ HYPOTHESIS AS AN EXPLANATION OF SCHIZOPHRENIA No single cause Before the biopsychosocial model became prominent psychologists preferred to explain schizophrenia in terms of heredity and environment. Two- hit hypothesis- proposes that two events occur (genetic vulnerability and environmental stress) which then causes schizophrenia. – Both events are necessary – Must occur in that order KEY SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA Delusions- is a fixed false belief that is held with absolute certainty, even when there is strong factual evidence that does not support it e.g. the belief that your going to be harmed or that an external force is controlling your thoughts. Hallucinations- is a perceptual experience during which the individual sees, hears, feels, tastes or smells something that is not actually present in reality e.g. hearing voices. Disorganised speech (thinking)- speech can be disconnected, jumbled and can be seen as ‘all over the place’. Disorganised or abnormal motor behaviour- behaviour often appears to be fragmented, inappropriate, unusual, unpredictable, purposeless and erratic. KEY SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA Affective flattening - reduction in intensity of emotional expression, including body language. Avolition - is a decrease in self- initiated, purposeful activities. Alogia - reduction in speech output, such as its content and fluency. Anhedonia- is the decreased ability to experience pleasure from normally enjoyable activities. TYPES OF PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS 2. DELUSIONAL DISORDER Delusional disorder: Troubled by one or more persistent delusions such as being conspired against, cheated, spied on, poisoned or blocked from achieving goals. TYPES OF PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS 3. SUBSTANCE AND MEDICATION INDUCED PSYCHOTIC DISORDER Substance/medication Induced Psychotic Disorder: Persistent delusions and/or hallucinations due to the direct physiological effects of excessive substance use or withdrawal. CONTRIBUTING FACTORS Biological: o Genetic influences o Changes to brain structures and functions Psychological: o Responses to stress o Cognitive impairments Social: o Family environment ADDICTION DISORDERS ADDICTION Psychological dependence – Mental desire to experience the effects produced by a substance Psychological dependence - cravings Physical dependence- Changes that occur in bodily processes Physical dependence - withdrawal ADDICTION A condition in which someone feels a recurring urge to use a substance or engage in an activity despite potentially harmful consequences. There are two types: – Drugs, alcohol, nicotine, caffeine (substance) – Shopping, gambling, exercising, internet (behaviour) COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF ALL ADDICTIONS: Activation of the brain’s rewards system – Feelings of pleasure maintain addiction Persistent and repeated thoughts, feelings and behaviour Reduced level of self-control Tolerance level – Decreased sensitivity overtime leads to the increase in amount Withdrawal – Unpleasant psychological and physical reactions when substance is reduced or discontinued GAMBLING Gambling: is any activity in which something of value (e.g. money) is put at risk in hope of obtaining something of higher value. CONTRIBUTING FACTORS (BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH) Biological – dopamine reward system – Neural pathways in the brain that, when stimulated, results in pleasurable effects Psychological – distorted ways of thinking – Cognitive distortions – inaccurate thoughts, beliefs and attitudes. 1. Illusion of control – refers to the mistaken belief that the outcome can be controlled 2. The gamblers fallacy- refers to the mistaken belief that in a series of chance events, future events can be predicted. CONTRIBUTING FACTORS (BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH) Social - social acceptability – Infrastructure to support gambling – Different forms – Media promote it – Regular recreational activity PERSONALITY DISORDERS PERSONALITY DISORDERS A group of mental disorders involving personality characteristics that interfere with functioning or cause significant personal distress. TYPES OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS 1. ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER Shows disrespect for the law and no concern about disobeying laws. Will act without thinking and can be very aggressive. Some people with antisocial personality disorder are referred to outside psychology as a sociopath or psychopath. Psychopathy Sociopathy Unable to form emotional attachments Struggle in relationships; difficulty Aggressive and predatory in nature forming attachments View others as objects for their Nervous and easily agitated; disturbed amusement and erratic Often disarming or charming; cool, calm Capable of empathy in certain and meticulous circumstances Mimic emotions Volatile and prone to emotional outbursts Often well educated and hold steady jobs Likely to be uneducated and live on the When committing crimes, carefully pan fringes of society details in advance and have contingency At times unable to hold a steady job plans Crimes they commit tend to be More difficult to identify haphazard and spontaneous Rare and dangerous No regard for society or rules in general Innate; Common amongst serial killers Easier to identify Appear to be learned rather than innate James Fallon: “Neuroscientist With the Brain of a Psychopath” Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIxTFKpBSSw TYPES OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS 2. NARCISSISTIC PERSONALITY DISORDER People with this disorder have an exaggerated sense of self-importance and an overwhelming need for admiration. Require a lot of attention, are extremely sensitive to criticism and may get angry at or reject anyone who dares to criticise them. TYPES OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS 3. BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER Intense changes in mood, self-image and relationships with others. May be quite friendly and then suddenly erupt in anger. This can result in self-damaging behaviour such us binge drinking, spending sprees or reckless driving etc. ANXIETY DISORDERS Generalized Anxiety Disorder GAD = excessive, exaggerated anxiety and worry about everyday life events with no obvious reasons for worry. People with generalized anxiety disorder always expect disaster and can't stop worrying about everyday issues like health, money, family, work, school etc. Phobias Phobia A PHOBIA = a persistent, excessive, unrealistic fear of an object, person, animal, activity or situation. Phobia is one of the most common mental illnesses in North America, with 8% of adults having some type of phobia. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder) Unwanted and repeated thoughts, feelings, ideas, sensations (obsessions) that make people feel the need to engage in specific behaviors repeatedly (compulsions) Examples of compulsive behaviours: *hand washing *checking *counting *repeating Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) -Occurs in people who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event, series of events or set of circumstances. Examples include: natural disasters, serious accidents, terrorist acts, war/combat, sexual assault, historical trauma, intimate partner violence and bullying. -An individual may experience this as emotionally or physically harmful or life-threatening and may affect mental, physical, social, and/or spiritual well-being. Panic Disorder Sudden and intense attacks of extreme fear that is out of proportion to the actual danger of the situation (irrational). Episodes reach a peak within a few minutes and trigger intense physical symptoms (panic attacks). TREATMENT Psychotherapy - Cognitive behavioural therapy (becoming aware of thinking patterns and developing a new perspective to view and deal with situations) Social support – Support groups Medication - Targets dopamine reward system Treatments for Mental Illness - Psychotherapy - Cognitive Behavioural Therapy - Interpersonal Therapy - Dialectical Behavioural Therapy - Medication - Antidepressants - Anti-anxiety Medication - Mood Stabilizers - Antipsychotics - Hospitalization - Rehabilitation and Skills Training - Independent Living Skills - Job and/or Housing Issues - Vocational Counselling - Communication Skills - Support Group(s) Cognitive Behavioural Therapy - Focuses on discovering and challenging unhelpful thoughts, beliefs, assumptions, and behaviours, and interrupting them to begin to develop helpful and balanced ones - Subject your negative thoughts to reality testing so the client can use more reasonable standards of evaluation - The client sets goals with their therapist and may carry Discover unhelpful assumptions out tasks between sessions that underlie negative thinking and behaviour - Structure, time limited and focused on the here and now - Deals with current situations more than events in your past or childhood - Usually between 6 to 15 sessions at about an hour each - Can be applied to a variety of mental health problems Mental Illness and the Law NCR IN CANADA NCR - Not Criminally Responsible NCRMD - Not Criminally Responsible on Grounds of Mental Disorder Section 16 of the Criminal Code of Canada “16 (1) No person is criminally responsible for an act committed or an omission made while suffering from a mental disorder that rendered the person incapable of appreciating the nature and quality of the act or omission or of knowing that it was [legally and morally] wrong.” NOT CRIMINALLY RESPONSIBLE ON ACCOUNT OF MENTAL DISORDER (NCRMD) To Establish NCRMD, the Defense must prove, on the “balance of probabilities” (more likely than not), the accused was: Suffering from a mental illness at the time that the crime was committed and did not have the capacity to understand their actions ○ Legal vs. Illegal ○ Right vs. Wrong Mental illness rendered them not in control of their behaviour 2 /1000 cases successfully rendered NCRMD verdict 8.1% of successful cases involve serious violence FAMOUS CANADIAN CASES OF NCR Vince Li Stabbed a young man, Tim McLean (22) sleeping on a greyhound bus in Manitoba Li cannibalized McLean Pled NCRMD Diagnosis: Schizophrenia Ruling: NCR CBC News Video: “Vince Li, Greyhound bus killer, granted unsupervised passes to Winnipeg https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/video/1.2976950

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