Introduction to Archaeology PDF

Introduction to Archaeology Archaeological Methods & Materials How Sites are Formed Dating Methods Updates… Your teaching assistant: Musah Adam Office Hours: Friday, 11 a.m. – 12 noon Office Location: 442 Fletcher Argue Please note… In our exploration of archaeology, there are...

Introduction to Archaeology Archaeological Methods & Materials How Sites are Formed Dating Methods Updates… Your teaching assistant: Musah Adam Office Hours: Friday, 11 a.m. – 12 noon Office Location: 442 Fletcher Argue Please note… In our exploration of archaeology, there are different areas of focus – those archaeologists who study material culture, those who study faunal remains, and those who study human remains (often, but not always, osteological) there were be images of such explorations in the lectures that follow… What Do Archaeologists Do and How Do They Do It?… Where do you find ‘material culture’?  Before we can begin to examine the research interests of archaeologists (future weeks), we must first understand how they conduct their research….  Archaeologists Time period = human past Recovery & analysis of artifacts, ecofacts, and features (all material culture) left behind Special attention paid to the context or provenience of artifacts Material culture & sites - used to interpret cultural variation and cultural change Of Interest to Lithics - Most Common! Archaeologists… Artifacts: Any object shaped or modified by humans, or produced as a Common - Ceramics Potsherd result of human activity Ecofacts: natural objects which have been used or affected by humans (animal bones, seeds, pollen) Chicken! Of Interest to Archaeologists… Features: An artifact that, being too large to remove from a site, normally is recorded only; for example, house, storage pits, etc., or… Any soil disturbance or discoloration that reflects human activity….  Of Interest to Archaeologists… Feature (non portable) post-mold (for cross- section) Also: hearths & living floors Munsell Soil Colour Chart  Of Interest to Archaeologists… Feature (non portable) Burial  The Archaeologist’s Methodology – the process Locate potential site A geographic place showing evidence of past human activity Survey & map – archaeology is a “destructive” process Devise sampling plan & excavate sample units  Site Date and Function Surface Collection Datum Test Pitting ound Penetrating Radar Transect Sampling The Archaeologist’s Methodology – the process Once sampling is completed, excavation may begin… GRID SYSTEM Record position of artifacts, ecofacts & features Understand provenience (relative position) The Importance of Stratigraphy Excavate slowly, layer by layer, top to bottom… “law of superimposition” Exception –disturbed or “culturally sterile” topsoil –backhoe Excavation end? – sterile layers  Stratigraphic Layers Strata (stratum): layers of human or geological origin  Problem: Natural events, human / animal behaviour can alter the stratigraphic profile – “intrusions”  Back in the lab: sort, classify, analyze What kind of material is preserved? Less fragile – stone, iron, bronze, baked clay (pottery, figurines) More fragile – wood and plant fibers, leather and fabric (organic) Preservation bias = a “frustratingly incomplete” archaeological record Implications = not all human activity represented in remains, room for error in interpretation Extreme Sites Hot, dry climates (decay slower) Can find – baskets, textiles, wood, and leather artifacts, mummies E.g., Egypt & Peru Extreme Sites Cold climates (refrigerate, dry out) Even better preservation E.g., glacier finds Extreme Sites Oxygen-Free Sites: Volcanic eruptions Mudslides Peat bogs Underwater Preserves organic materials Tollund Man (e.g., “bog body”) Discovered 1950, Denmark Died about 2,000 years ago Death by hanging 40 years of age; barley-based last meal; clean- shaven; eyes closed with care Dating Sites and Artifacts Dating: importance: interpret site and trace sequences or changes over time Change is not linear, e.g., from one form to a ‘better’ form; complex reasons for change  Types of Dating Methods Relative Dating Determine objects to be younger or older relative to other objects Material then arranged in a temporal sequence Problems, does not indicate: how long ago a sequence began how long a sequence lasted Types of Dating Methods Absolute (Chronometric) Dating Laboratory analysis of artifacts or other material (dep on technique) recovered from a site Assigns an age in years to material evidence Considered an absolute date (though there is an associated margin of error) Examples of Relative Dating Methods Stratigraphic Superimposition Considers the ‘layer cake’ appearance found at a site Older layers = deeper layers New layers laid down sequentially over time Examples of Relative Dating Methods Seriation Ordering artifacts through time by tracing changes in styles over time Sir Flinders Petrie: applied method to Egyptian burial pottery in the late 19th century “Battleship Curve” – most styles will emerge, peak in maximum popularity, then decline (as something else becomes more fashionable) Examples of Absolute Dating Methods Dendrochronology Age estimations of wood samples or artifacts Based on an examination of annual tree growth rings Nature of the rings can be influenced by seasonal growing conditions Each season carries its own “fingerprint”  Limitations: Wood Material Recovered Can only be used From a Site to date wood Limited temporal range Regional Master Chronology  Examples of Absolute Dating Methods Radioactive Isotopes Technique based on the known rate of decay of atoms (half-life) Radiocarbon Dating (14C): Carbon-14 decays over time to Nitrogen-14 Other isotopes / different materials (e.g., Uranium-Series Dating) Radiocarbon Dating (14C): Dating Organic Material Carbon-14 produced when atmospheric Nitrogen- 14 bombarded by cosmic rays Absorbed from the air by plants; plants, in turn, ingested by living creatures Balance of Carbon-14 remains steady until creature dies… At this point, no new 14C is taken in, and… 14C begins the slow and steady decay into 14N Radiocarbon Dating (14C): Dating Organic Material Half of the original amount Carbon-14 in an organism will decay 5730 years after its death (i.e., “half life” of 5730 years) If current organism with full level of C-14 emits 15 beta radiations/minute; organism remains which emit 7.5 beta radiations/minute must be 5730 years old Apply this technique to: bone, mollusc shells, eggshells  Reconstructing the Past: How Did People Live? Human Remains and Past Diets Past Environments and Settlement Patterns Social Systems and Cultural Change What kind of information can anthropologists use to reconstruct life in the past? Artifacts, Ecofacts, Features Environmental Evidence & Reconstructions Human Soft-Tissue & Skeletal Remains Why are anthropologists so interested in the human skeleton? Why are Anthropologists so interested in the human skeleton? Bone is not a ‘fixed material’ – our bones will undergo changes as we live and age Bone remodelling: Osteoblasts = bone-forming cells Osteoclasts = bone-resorption cells Skeletal variation influenced by both biology and behaviour (culture) Human Remains from Archaeological Sites: Help with interpretation of lifetime events of past populations: Disease Physiological Stress, Injury, Violent Death Physical Activity Demographic History Diet and Nutrition In order to formulate these interpretations… Biological Anthropologists are specialists at ‘reading’ the human skeleton, able to: Age (how old) Sex (female or male) Consider atypical aspects (must be able to distinguish pre- vs. post- mortem change) Some refer to themselves as ‘story-tellers’  Bioarchaeology Bioarchaeology: "the study of the human biological component of the archeological record…looking at the skeletons of once-living people as if they were alive." Recommended: Clark Larsen (1997) Bioarcheology: Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. “Palaeopathology” Study of diseases & disorders in past populations, e.g.: Trauma (e.g., fractures) Infectious Disease (e.g., leprosy) Degenerative Disease (e.g., osteoarthritis) Metabolic Disease (e.g., rickets) Dental Pathology (e.g., caries)  Approaches to Pathology Interpretation: Macroscopic (the eye) Microscopic (thin section bone) Radiographic analysis Chemical analysis ** Need a good DESCRIPTION for a good DIAGNOSIS Infectious Disease Skeletal tuberculosis: Spinal tuberculosis or “Pott’s Disease” “Representativeness” Human/animal relations Mycobacterium tuberculosis Mycobacterium bovis Infectious Disease Skeletal tuberculosis: Care of the sick & those with disabilities **bone destruction** Tertiary Syphilis – Bone Destruction Infectious Disease