Development of Psychological Thought BPCC-106 PDF

 BPCC-106 DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT School of Social Sciences Indira Gandhi National Open University BPCC 106_2nd Proof.ind...

 BPCC-106 DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT School of Social Sciences Indira Gandhi National Open University BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 1 4/1/2021 3:09:02 PM  EXPERT COMMITTEE Prof. Shanmukh Kamble Dr. Arvind Mishra Department of Psychology Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies Karnataka University, Dharwad JNU, New Delhi Prof. Swati Patra Prof. SuhasShetgovekar Professor of Psychology Professor of Psychology SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Dr. Smita Gupta Dr. Monika Misra Sr. Assistant Professor of Psychology Sr. Assistant Professor of Psychology SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi COURSE COORDINATOR Dr. Monika Misra Discipline of Psychology School of Social Sciences IGNOU, New Delhi Content Editor Dr. Monika Misra Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU COURSE PREPARATION TEAM Block Unit Writer Block I PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Unit 1 Historical and Dr. Arvind Mishra, Zakhir Hussain Centre for Philosophical Context Educational Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Unit 2 Contributions to Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Early Modern Psychology: Psychology, Vivekananda College, University of Hermann Helmholtz, Gustav Delhi Fechner, Wilhelm Wundt, William James Block II EARLY PSYCHOLOGY Unit 3 Associationism Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Psychology, Vivekananda College, University of Delhi Unit 4 Structuralism Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Psychology, Vivekananda College, University of Delhi Unit 5 Functionalism Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Psychology, Vivekananda College, University of Delhi Block III THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH Unit 6 Psychoanalysis Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Psychology, Vivekananda College, University of Delhi Unit 7 Neo-Freudians Ms. Vrushali Pathak, Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi. Block IV THE BEHAVIROURAL AND HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVES Unit 8 Behaviourism Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Psychology, Vivekananda College, University of Delhi BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 2 4/1/2021 3:09:02 PM  Unit 9 Neo-Behaviourism Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Psychology, Vivekananda College, University of Delhi Unit 10 Gestalt Psychology Ms. Vrushali Pathak, Research Scholar, Dept. of Psychology, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi Unit 11 Humanistic- Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Existential Psychology Psychology, Vivekananda College, University of Delhi Bock V TRENDS AND DEBATES IN MODERN PSYCHOLOGY Unit 12 Current Trends in Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Psychology Psychology, Vivekananda College, University of Delhi Unit 13 Issues and Debates in Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Psychology Psychology, Vivekananda College, University of Delhi. Cover Design: Ms. Selene Khosla, Research Scholar, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Secretarial Assistance PRINT PRODUCTION Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Hemant Kumar Assistant Registrar 6HFWLRQ2൶FHU MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi June, 2021 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021 ISBN : 978-93-91229-32-0 All right reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University. Further information about the Indira Gandhi National Open University FRXUVHVPD\EHREWDLQHGIURPWKH8QLYHUVLW\¶VR৽FHDW0DLGDQ*DUKL1HZ Delhi-110068. Printed and Published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi. BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 3 4/1/2021 3:09:02 PM BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 4 4/1/2021 3:09:02 PM  Course Contents Page No. BLOCK I PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Unit 1 Historical and Philosophical Context of 13 Psychological Thought Unit 2 Contributions To Early Modern Psychology: 25 Helmholtz, Fechner, Wundt and James BLOCK II EARLY PSYCHOLOGY Unit 3 Associationism 47 Unit 4 Structuralism 67 Unit 5 Functionalism 80 BLOCK III THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH Unit 6 Psychoanalysis 96 Unit 7 Neo-Freudians 120 BLOCK IV THE BEAHAVIOURAL AND HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVES Unit 8 Behaviourism 144 Unit 9 Neo-Behaviourism 160 Unit 10 Gestalt Psychology 176 Unit 11 Humanistic-Existential Psychology 195 BLOCK V TRENDS AND DEBATES IN MODERN PSYCHOLOGY Unit 12 Current Trends in Psychology 217 Unit 13 Issues and Debates in Psychology 241 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 5 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 6 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM  DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT: HOW TO PROCEED IN THE COURSE? The course on Development of Psychological Thought (BPCC-106) is one RI WKH FRUH FRXUVHV R൵HUHG LQ UG 6HPHVWHU RI %$ +RQRXUV 3URJUDPPH of IGNOU. The course is of 06 Credits, comprising Theory (04 Credits) and Tutorial (02 Credits). In the beginning, some important psychologists and their landmark achievements are summarized and presented in a WDEXODUIRUP7KHFRXUVHLVGLYLGHGLQWR¿YHEORFNV(DFKRIWKHVHEORFNV UHSUHVHQWVDVSHFL¿FWKHPHZKLFKLVGLVFXVVHGLQRQHWRIRXUXQLWV7KHXQLWV are arranged in a logical sequence so as to cover the main aspects of each theme. Each unit contains a brief introduction in the beginning and a list of references and further reading, as well as, web resources at the end. The list of web resources has been mentioned for additional information on various topics. You are advised to read Course Introduction carefully, in order to NQRZDERXWWKHUDWLRQDOHDQGFRQWHQWRIWKHFRXUVH\RXKDYHR൵HUHGWRUHDG downloads>assignments> BA CBCS>Core Courses. You need to check the course code and title of the course carefully, before downloading the assignment. These are Tutor Marked Assignments, which are to be submitted to the respective Study Centre after completion. These assignments will be evaluated by academic counsellor from your Study Centre. Ensure that you complete all your assignments because the grades that you get in each of these assignments are LQFOXGHGLQWKH¿QDOHYDOXDWLRQRI\RXUGHJUHH  %HIRUHDQVZHULQJWKH assignments, read all the units carefully. While working on the assignments, kindly ensure the following points, Clearly write your enrollment number 1) Answer them in your handwriting and in your own words 2) Write clearly and neatly so that it is easy to read your answers 3) Leave margins on one side of your answer-sheets so that evaluator may write his/ her comments on your performance BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 9 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM  4) You will submit the assignments at your Study Centre on or before the date mentioned as per the admission cycle. Kindly check the dates from www.ignou.ac.in or your Regional Centre website. After reading and understanding the course material, as well as referring to the audio and video programmes, you will be writing the Term End Examination 7((  IRU WKH FRXUVH 7(( FDUULHV  ZHLJKWDJH LQ WKH evaluation scheme. Consider the following points while answering for TEE. 1) Questions should be replied in one’s own words and should focused. 2) Answer questions keeping in mind the word limit. The syllabus of course material BPCC 106 is designed by an Expert Committee (see page 2 of this course) and prepared by Course Preparation Team which comprises the author(s) of units, content editor(s), language editor, and the course coordinator. The expert committee selected the themes and sub-themes of the blocks and units, keeping in view the prescribed syllabi of UGC (CBCS model). The authors of units have provided their expertise in elaborating them in the form of the main text of each unit. The content editor has carefully examined the course contents and has made an attempt to make the material clear and comprehendible. For any query or feedback related to the course, you may contact the Course Coordinator at, Dr. Monika Misra Room No.31, Block-F, School of Social Sciences IGNOU, New Delhi E: [email protected] [email protected] O: 011-29572781 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 10 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM  COURSE INTRODUCTION: DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT ,QFRQWLQXDWLRQZLWKWKHFRUHFRXUVHVR൵HUHGLQWKHHDUOLHUVHPHVWHUV\RX must have got a fair idea about the discipline of psychology and some of its domains. The present course is in a way, the ‘story of psychology’, how the discipline emerged and parted ways from philosophy. The psychological scientists wanted to uncover the basic laws of human behaviour and animal EHKDYLRXU WKURXJK VFLHQWL¿F LQYHVWLJDWLRQ 7KXV WKH FRXUVH H[SODLQV the philosophical origins of the discipline, highlighting the works and contribution of various psychologists which made the discipline objective DQG VFLHQWL¿F (DFK XQLW IRFXVHV RQ D SDUWLFXODU VFKRRO RI WKRXJKW RU perspective, and discusses the works and contributions by psychologists from that school of thought. BLOCK INTRODUCTION 7KHUH DUH ¿YH EORFNV DQG WKLUWHHQ XQLWV LQ WKLV FRXUVH %ORFN , WHOOV \RX about the historical and philosophical context of psychological thought, and the contribution by early psychologists. Block II will focus on the changes that came during 1800s. The highlight will be associationism, structuralism, and functionalism as schools of thought within psychology. Block III explains one of the most well-known psychological perspectives to understand behaviour, that is psychodynamic approach. A group of IROORZHUVPRGL¿HGWKH)UHXGLDQLGHDVDQGJUDGXDOO\FDPHXSZLWKWKHLURZQ personality theories, known as Neo-Freudians. Their perspectives will also be highlighted in this block. Block IV will focus on Behaviourism, Neo- behaviourism, Gestalt Psychology, and Humanistic-Existential psychology. Block-V will discuss the current trends in psychology as well the issues and GHEDWHVZLWKLQWKH¿HOGRISV\FKRORJ\ Block IJLYHVDQLQWURGXFWLRQWRWKHWUDGLWLRQDOSHUVSHFWLYHVLQWKH¿HOGRI psychology and the contributions by early psychologists. Unit 1 discusses the diverse thoughts from non-western and western perspectives in SV\FKRORJ\ 8QLW  WUDFHV WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI SV\FKRORJ\ DV D VFLHQWL¿F discipline. The contributions by early experimental psychologists like Helmholtz, Fechner, Wundt and James, are discussed in detail. The role of experimental physiology is also highlighted in the unit. Block II introduces you to the early schools of thought in psychology. This block constitutes of three units (Unit 3, Unit 4, and Unit 5). Unit 3 describes the contribution by British empiricists like Hobbes, Locke, Hume, Berkeley, Mill and Bain. It will also discuss the role of learning theorists like, Ebbinghaus, Pavlov, and Thorndike, in associationism. Unit 4 explains structuralism as a school of thought, whose goal is to identify the basic VWUXFWXUHV RI SV\FKRORJLFDO H[SHULHQFH 7KH ZRUN RI PRVW VLJQL¿FDQW structuralists, Wundt and Titchener are discussed. Unit 5 discusses the contribution by Darwin, Galton, Romanes, Morgan and Spencer, as the forerunner of functionalism. The works of The Chicago School, led by Dewey, Angell and Carr, along with the main proponent of The Colombia School, Woodworth will be examined. BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 11 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM  Block III consists of two units (Unit 6 and Unit 7). Unit 6 addresses one of WKHPRVWLQÀXHQWLDOSHUVSHFWLYHLHSV\FKRG\QDPLFDSSURDFKFreud was the ¿UVWWRV\VWHPDWLFDOO\VWXG\DQGWKHRUL]HWKHZRUNLQJRIWKHXQFRQVFLRXVPLQG In psychoanalysis, Freud’s ideas on unconscious mind, psychopathology, and views on sexuality will be highlighted. Psychoanalysis as a method of treatment, personality theory, and the criticism of psychodynamic perspective will also be discussed. Unit 7 will focus on the perspectives of Neo-Freudians. Erikson, Jung, Horney, Sullivan and Adler’s view on human nature will be discussed in this Unit. Block IV consists of four units (Unit 8, Unit 9, Unit 10, and Unit 11). Unit 8 gives a description of the antecedants of behaviourism, and Watsonian behaviourism. Overall impact of behaviourism and the criticism of this perspective is also elucidated. Unit 9 explains logical positivism, and operationism. It further discusses about the contributions of Guthrie, Hull, Tolman and Skinner. Unit 10 explains Gestalt psychology. It covers the antecedent forces, basic principles of gestalt psychology and the most important contribution by Lewin, ¿HOGWKHRU\DQGJURXSG\QDPLFV8QLW aims to uncover the third force in psychology. The precursors of third-force are discussed in this unit. Humanistic psychology and existential psychology are discussed in detail. The contributions by humanists like Maslow and Rogers, and existentialists like, Frankl and May, have been highlighted. The VLPLODULWLHVDQGGL൵HUHQFHVEHWZHHQKXPDQLVWLFDQGH[LVWHQWLDOSV\FKRORJ\ is also talked about in detail. Block V has two units (Unit 12, and Unit 13). Unit 12 discusses the current trends in psychology. The main focus is on cognitivism, social constructivism, cultural, cross-cultural and indigenous psychology, feminist psychology and positive psychology. How the current perspectives emerged, and the works of Bruner, Miller & Neisser, Gergen, Marx, Weber, Miller, Weisstein, Bem and Seligman are discussed in detail. The last Unit talks DERXWWKHGL൵HUHQWLVVXHVDQGGHEDWHVZLWKLQWKHGLVFLSOLQHRISV\FKRORJ\ like, nature and nurture, free will and determinism, mind-body relationship, and the relationship of individual and society. The content will help you in framing ideas and views related to the emergence and subject matter of psychology. Lastly, the course has a Tutorial component. The tutorial activity will be included in the assignments. BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 12 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM  UNIT 1 HISTORICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL CONTEXT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT* Structure 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Philosophical Context 1.2 Historical Perspectives 1.3 Non-Western Traditions in Psychology 1.3.1 India 1.3.1.1 Hinduism 1.3.1.2 Buddhism 1.3.1.3 Jainism 1.3.2 China 1.4 Concluding Comments 1.5 Summary 1.6 Key Words 1.7 Review Questions 1.8 References and Further Reading 1.9 Web Resources Learning Objectives After reading this Unit, you will be able to; Ɣ Explain the philosophical basis of diversity in modern psychological thought; Ɣ Discuss the role of social and cultural forces in the development of knowledge; Ɣ Appreciate the relativity of Western psychological thought; and Ɣ ,GHQWLI\ WKH GL൵HUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH :HVWHUQ DQG QRQ:HVWHUQ psychological thoughts. 1.0 INTRODUCTION Many students of psychology, as well as some faculty from psychology, often raise questions about the usefulness of learning about the historical and philosophical context of the discipline for developing a proper understanding of the contemporary theoretical and practical issues in the ¿HOG RI SV\FKRORJ\ 7KH\ DUJXH WKDW DOWKRXJK SV\FKRORJ\ ZDV SDUW RI philosophy in the past, it has now achieved independent status as a discipline * Dr. Arvind Kumar Mishra, Zakhir Hussain Centre for Educational Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 13 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM  Development of and psychological knowledge is distinct from the philosophical discourse. Psychological Thought They further contend that psychologists should be concerned only with the current problems human beings have been struggling with and should help them to cope with these problems. Prima facie, these arguments appear convincing and, therefore, it should be accepted by everyone. However, when one tries to understand the meaning of the term ‘psychology’, one realizes that it refers to many things such as mental processes, behaviour, creativity, intelligence, mental disorder, prejudice, personality, attitude, belief, motivation, etc. Needless to say, the range of meanings this term is associated with, tends to confuse the new student of psychology. To overcome the confusion arising out of the diversity and complexity of the discipline, it becomes necessary for the new students to acquaint themselves with the philosophical sources, historical, and other factors that have helped shape the psychological knowledge until recently. It is expected that after knowing them, the reader will be in a better position to make sense of a myriad meanings associated with this discipline. The Unit will begin with the discussion of the two philosophical perspectives ± HPSLULFLVP DQG UDWLRQDOLVP ± WKDW KDYH LQÀXHQFHG SV\FKRORJLVWV WR investigate the various psychological phenomena. The discussion of philosophical perspectives of psychological thoughts will help the learner to understand one source of diversity in the psychological thoughts. However, WRXQGHUVWDQGZK\GLGGL൵HUHQWSV\FKRORJLVWVDGRSWGL൵HUHQWSKLORVRSKLFDO perspectives, in the next section historical perspectives in which these psychological thoughts developed will be discussed. The discussion on the historical perspective will help the readers to understand the link of psychological thoughts with the socio-cultural and idealogical milieu in which they developed. 1.1 PHILOSOPHICAL CONTEXT A closer reading of the history and philosophy of science indicates that Empiricism: idea that all there is a contestation around the meaning, methodology, and purpose of learning comes from only experience and observations science. In a broad sense, science refers to a systematic acquisition of knowledge. However, laypersons as well as many scholars hold a narrow Rationalism: knowledge view of science. According to a narrow view of science, acquisition of derived from reason and logic. RQO\VHQVHREVHUYDWLRQVEDVHGNQRZOHGJHLVFRQVLGHUHGYDOLGDQGVFLHQWL¿F This perspective of science is termed empiricism. It is to be noted that the empiricist view of science is just one of the perspectives of science and a group of philosophers of science considers it as a limited and narrow perspective on science. Rationalism, another philosophical perspective, advocates the use of human reason/intellect to generate new knowledge. Although chronologically rationalism was advocated by the philosophers as the perspective of science much before the adoption of empiricism, the empiricist perspective dominated the discipline of psychology for a long WLPH+RZHYHUVRPHRIWKHSV\FKRORJLFDOWKHRULHVKDYHEHHQLQÀXHQFHGE\ the philosophy of rationalism as well. The controlled application of empiricism is the experimental method, which attained the status of being the most popular and respected method in natural sciences. As natural sciences helped people to overcome the uncertainties DQG GL൶FXOWLHV RI OLIH DQG DOVR PDGH KXPDQ OLIH PRUH SUHGLFWDEOH DQG 14 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 14 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM  comfortable, the experimental method was viewed as the most sophisticated Historical and and useful method to generate valid knowledge. Therefore, scholars in the Philosophical Context of Psychological Thought ¿HOG RI VRFLDO VFLHQFHV WRR WKRXJKW WKDW WKH H[SHULPHQWDO PHWKRG FRXOG be fruitfully applied in the social domain to generate valid knowledge. Wilhelm Wundt developed a system of psychology that was based on the empiricist perspective of science. He advocated the use of controlled introspection (a type of experiment in which the person involved in introspection experiments on oneself) to unravel the structure of the mind. His basic training was in the discipline of physiology wherein experimental method had occupied a prominent place among the researchers. It is VDLG WKDW WKH :XQGWLDQ  H[SHULPHQWDO SV\FKRORJ\ ZDV DQ R൵VSULQJ RI experimental physiology and mental philosophy, the former supplied the method and the latter its subject matter. The term ‘physiological’ in the book, “Physiological Psychology´DXWKRUHGE\:XQGWVLJQL¿HVWKHXVHRI the method of physiology, that is, the experimental method in psychology; empiricism: it does not explicate the physiological basis of psychological processes as structuralis and all the contemporary books on physiological psychology do. behaviourism-- It may be noted that some systems of psychology, such as structuralism and behaviourism relied on empiricism. John Watson, the founder of John Watson: make psychology a fully scientific EHKDYLRXULVPLVNQRZQIRUKLVH൵RUWWRPDNHSV\FKRORJ\DIXOO\VFLHQWL¿F discipline and opposed the discipline and opposed the study of mental structure and its functions. To mental structure and its him, only observable behaviour should be the subject matter of psychology functions. Only observable behaviour whereas the Gestalt school drew on the logic of rationalism. Although should be subject matter of Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, was trained in the modern psychology. discipline of neurology, his philosophical position is not very clear regarding WKHXVHRIDSDUWLFXODUVFLHQWL¿FSHUVSHFWLYHIRUKLVV\VWHPRIWKRXJKW7KH rationalism: gestalt school of thought proponents of another school of psychological thought, the humanistic- existential psychologyZHUHFULWLFDORIWKHXVHRIWKHVFLHQWL¿FPHWKRGWR study human psychology and they were particularly opposed to applying an analytical approach to understand human mental processes or behaviour. According to them, every person is born free and has the capabilities to develop his/her potential, and the discipline of psychology should help the person in this endeavor. This group of psychologists advocated the phenomenological approach to understand the experiences of the person. )URPDOOWKHDERYHH[DPSOHVLWLVFOHDUWKDWLIVFLHQWL¿FSV\FKRORJ\LVGH¿QHG LQDSDUWLFXODUZD\LWVSHFL¿HVRUGH¿QHVWKHVFRSHRIWKHGLVFLSOLQHLQD limited sense. What constitutes the subject matter of psychology – mental structure or mental functions or consciousness or observable behaviour or unconscious motives or fully functioning person — depends on what the thinkers associated with a particular school of thought consider important. +RZHYHUPRVWRIWKHVWDQGDUGWH[WERRNVGH¿QHSV\FKRORJ\DVDVFLHQWL¿F study of the brain, mind, and behaviour. Therefore, it can be argued that WKHFXUUHQWVWDQGDUGGH¿QLWLRQRISV\FKRORJ\UHÀHFWVYLHZVRIRQO\DIHZ thinkers associated with a particular school of psychology or a combination of a few of them instead of representing the entire spectrum of psychological thoughts. Upon reading the history of psychology in an introductory textbook of psychology, the reader may get the impression that Wilhelm Wundt was the IRXQGHURIVFLHQWL¿FSV\FKRORJ\DVKHKDGHVWDEOLVKHGWKH¿UVWODERUDWRU\RI 15 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 15 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM  Development of psychology at Leipzig University in 1879. At this point, it will be worthwhile Psychological Thought to alert the reader that this is not an objective fact. This image of Wundt has been constructed and propagated by a group of psychologists who hold a SDUWLFXODULPDJHRIVFLHQFHDQGVFLHQWL¿FSV\FKRORJ\,QIDFW:XQGWKDG understood the limitations of the experimental method in understanding mental processes. By using the experimental method, Wundt believed, the experimenter can study only the simple mental processes such as attention, perception, and some forms of memory. However, for studying the higher mental processes, according to him, anthropological and historical methods are more appropriate. Therefore, he started a new area of psychology, known as Volkerpsychologies, and which can be translated as ‘cultural’ or ‘social’ psychology, to study the products of higher mental processes, such as religion, customs, cultural artifacts, etc. He devoted more time to Volkerpsychologies than on experimental psychology. These facts about Wundt clearly show that Wundt himself had thought psychology should be broader than merely being an experimental discipline. Is it not puzzling to note that Volkerpsychologies advocated by Wundt is hardly discussed in the introductory textbook of psychology? Similarly, William James, one of the founders of psychology and originally trained as a physiologist like Wundt, thought that psychology should focus on the study of consciousness. However, after realizing that in the prevalent VFLHQWL¿FSV\FKRORJ\LWLVQRWSRVVLEOHWRVWXG\WKHVWUHDPRIFRQVFLRXVQHVV he quit the discipline of psychology, accusing it of a ‘ nasty little science’. Based on the above discussion of the views of two eminent thinkers in SV\FKRORJ\RQHQHHGVWRDSSUHFLDWHWKHHOHPHQWRIDUELWUDULQHVVLQGH¿QLQJ SV\FKRORJ\ DV D VFLHQWL¿F UHDG H[SHULPHQWDO  GLVFLSOLQH DQG KRZ VXFK D ZD\RIGH¿QLQJWKHGLVFLSOLQHPDNHVLWQDUURZ7KHUHIRUHLWLVLPSHUDWLYH to study the historical forces that shaped the discipline in a particular direction. By historicizing the various psychological thoughts, as a student of psychology, you will be able to understand how social, political, and ideological factors have played an important role in the development and perpetuation of certain kinds of psychological thoughts. Check Your Progress 1  :KDWDUHWKHGL൵HUHQWFRQQRWDWLRQVRIWKHWHUPµSV\FKRORJ\¶" …………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………… 2) What are the main philosophical positions on which psychological theories are based? …………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………… 1.2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES According to the traditional approach, history refers to an objective account of past happenings. However, in examining the past, historians often make use of structures or models to analyze and explain past events. For example, E.G. Boring, one of the eminent historians of psychology, has distinguished 16 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 16 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM  between two models of examining the past events of psychology – the Historical and great man and the Zeitgeist models of history. According to the great man Philosophical Context of Psychological Thought PRGHOKLVWRULFDOFKDQJHVRFFXUGXHWRWKHH[WUDRUGLQDU\WDOHQWVDQGH൵RUWV of great persons. On the other hand, the zeitgeist, or “the spirit of the times” model attributes historical changes to momentum or historical forces. In this model the contributions of great men are not discounted, rather they are viewed as the manifestations of the historical forces. One example of the zeitgeist model of history is the contribution of Thomas S. Kuhn in the ¿HOGRIKLVWRU\RIVFLHQFH,QKLVVHPLQDOERRN7KH6WUXFWXUHRI6FLHQWL¿F Revolutions (1962), he has argued that cultural and social forces are involved in the development of a paradigm or model of science and the development of a new paradigm gives rise to change in the understanding and practice of science. The new paradigm develops either as a by-product of social and cultural forces or due to the inability of the old paradigm to explain new VFLHQWL¿F¿QGLQJV Kuhn thinks that a paradigm that guides the thinking and practices of Paradigm: framework or scientists is developed only in mature sciences such as physics, chemistry, system of thought about biology, and argues that psychology is not a mature science and still it is human nature in a pre-paradigmatic stage. Interestingly, Kuhn used the term ‘paradigm’ in various ways and according to one scholar, he used this concept with 21 GL൵HUHQWPHDQLQJV,QFRQWHPSRUDU\VFKRODUVKLSWKHWHUPµSDUDGLJP¶LVQRW necessarily used in a strict Kuhnian sense and it stands for any ‘framework’ or ‘system of thought about human nature’. Therefore, the various systems of psychological thoughts such as structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, psychoanalysis, gestalt school, etc. may be viewed as examples of the SDUDGLJPRISV\FKRORJ\2QHLPSRUWDQWDGYDQWDJHRIORRNLQJDWGL൵HUHQW systems of psychology in terms of Kuhn’s concept of paradigm will be to link psychological thought with the prevailing historical, political, socio- cultural, and ideological social forces. 7KH]HLWJHLVWDSSURDFKWRWKHKLVWRU\RIVFLHQWL¿FWKRXJKWDOORZVXVWRYLHZ philosophical systems/systems of thoughts in their historical context rather than existing as an autonomous and isolated corpus of thoughts. Further, this approach to look at the history of psychological thoughts makes room to look for the existence and development of psychological thoughts prevalent in non-Western cultural contexts. By now, it is hoped, that the you will be able appreciate that science is not only an intellectual pursuit but also a cultural and political enterprise. The Western societies, due to the dominance of the philosophical perspective of empiricism and the ideology of individualism, have popularised a narrow YLHZRIVFLHQFHDQGWKHVDPHKDVEHHQDSSOLHGLQWKH¿HOGRISV\FKRORJ\ too. Further, historical events like the industrial revolution and colonization gave rise to a situation in which western societies became important centers RI VFLHQWL¿F NQRZOHGJH SURGXFWLRQ 2ZLQJ WR WKH SROLWLFDO SRZHU EHLQJ exercised by the western societies over the rest of the world, especially over WKH FRORQL]HG FRXQWULHV WKH IRUPHU ZDV VXFFHVVIXO LQ GHFODULQJ VFLHQWL¿F knowledge as superior and universal and imposed the same on the non- western societies. After World War II, psychological theories, developed in WKH8QLWHG6WDWHVUHÀHFWLQJWKHLGHRORJ\RILQGLYLGXDOLVPZHUHH[SRUWHG to all the other countries due to its prominent position in world politics. As the modern (read Western) psychology has been exported in the non- 17 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 17 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM  Development of Western societies in the guise of being universal psychology, the prominent Psychological Thought DQGLQÀXHQWLDOVFKRODUVLQWKHGLVFLSOLQHRISV\FKRORJ\LQWKHQRQ:HVWHUQ countries, mostly being trained in the Western countries such as the UK, USA, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, have adopted it uncritically and helped in propagating the Western psychology in their respective countries through their teaching and research programmes. However, it is well-known that some important civilizations grew in the non-Western world with their systems of elaborate and sophisticated philosophical thoughts (including psychological thoughts). Therefore, we should make a distinction between the “non-Western psychologies” and “psychology practiced by the scholars of non-Western societies”. The former refers to the systems that originated in non-Western societies intending to explain human nature and behaviour ZKLOHWKHODWWHUVLJQL¿HVWKHDFWLYLWLHVDQGSUDFWLFHVRIZHVWHUQSV\FKRORJ\ adopted by the scholars of non-Western societies. Check Your Progress 2 1) Describe the two perspectives on history. …………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………  ,QZKDWZD\GRHVWKH]HLWJHLVWDSSURDFKWRKLVWRU\GL൵HUIURPWKH traditional approach? …………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………… In this section, a brief introduction of some non-Western psychological thoughts will be discussed. It is hoped that as a student of psychology, one is sensitive to the fact that academic (Western) psychology is not necessarily XQLYHUVDO LW VLPSO\ UHÀHFWV WKH SV\FKRORJ\ RI WKH ZHVWHUQ SHRSOH $V D corollary to this, western psychology should not be blindly be applied to explain the behaviours of people from non-Western societies. Hence, you will be acquainted with the psychological thoughts developed in the non- :HVWHUQZRUOGDVZHOO7KLVH൵RUWZLOOQRWRQO\VHUYHWKHLQWHUHVWRIWKHQRQ Western psychologies but has the potential to expand our understanding of human psychology in general. 1.3 NON-WESTERN TRADITIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY As it is clear from the above discussion that modern psychology has its root in some philosophical discourses in the west. Similarly in some non-Western civilizations thinkers and sages have discussed in detail about nature of human beings and their relation to the world, the meaning of life, and nature RIKXPDQNQRZOHGJH$VLQ:HVWHUQSKLORVRSKLFDOWKRXJKWUHÀHFWLRQVRQ psychological issues were linked with other aspects of life, in non-Western SKLORVRSKLFDODQGUHOLJLRXVGLVFRXUVHVWRRUHÀHFWLRQVRQKXPDQSV\FKRORJ\ was part of a broader scholarship related to various aspects of human life and society. It will be important to note that discussion of human nature in the QRQ:HVWHUQUHOLJLRXVDQGSKLORVRSKLFDOV\VWHPVUHÀHFWVRPHIXQGDPHQWDO YDOXHVZKLFKDUHGL൵HUHQWIURPWKRVHRIWKH:HVWHUQFLYLOL]DWLRQDOYDOXHV 18 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 18 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM  1.3.1 India Historical and Philosophical Context of India has been the birthplace of some important religions, such as Hinduism, Psychological Thought Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Like every religion, the founders and sages of the religions that have originated in the Indian sub-continent have developed a system of philosophical thoughts to guide the life and conduct of humankind. 1.3.1.1 Hinduism Hinduism is like other religions having a single sacred book and a well- GH¿QHGV\VWHPRIWKRXJKWWRJXLGHWKHFRQGXFWRILWVIROORZHUV7KHUHDUH multiple religious and philosophical resources that the followers of Hinduism draw on to conduct their lives. However, the Vedas, the Book of Knowledge, is considered as one of the important religious resources. The Vedas are a collection of lessons, hymns, poetry, and prose that were compiled from oral recitations. Although there are four Vedas, the Rig-veda, the most important among them, is the most famous as a literary collection praising YDULRXVREMHFWVRIZRUVKLSVXFKDVWKHVXQPRRQZLQGGDZQDQG¿UH However, the UpanishadsUHÀHFWWKHFROOHFWHGZLVGRPRI+LQGXVFKRODUVLQ which a person’s relation with the Universe has been discussed. Further, the 8SDQLVKDGVUHÀHFWWKHGLVWLQFWWKHPHRI,QGLDQSKLORVRSK\6NHSWLFLVPRI sensory knowledge and intellect is the dominant theme. Another important theme is the search for self-control, unity, and universal knowledge. Unlike the Western philosophical system in which a person is neither viewed as mind or body or both, but as an impersonal, neutral, and pervading reality. There is an emphasis on eliminating individual desires through self-control and ascetic living, so that one can escape from individualism and get reabsorbed into a whole unity of Being (the supreme reality). Person, according to the Upanishads, is not a unique individual but as an Atman, which is the part of the Brahman (the supreme reality). Thus, one can notice the goals expressed in the Upanishads as diametrically opposite to the basic goal of Western psychology. Whereas in Western psychology the individual is considered as an independent and autonomous entity and its focus is to facilitate the individuals to achieve and develop their uniqueness. In the Upanishads, on the other hand, the person should realize their essential connection with the Brahman and work for harmony by undermining individuality. 1.3.1.2 Buddhism In contrast to the Hindu philosophy, Buddha (meaning literally, the enlightened person), the founder of Buddhism, rejected the notion of ‘mind’ or ‘soul’ terming them as the invention of human need. Unlike some Western psychology that posits that an individual has free will to decide one’s fate, Buddha argued that human beings were governed by the determinism of habit, heredity, and environmental events. The perceived unity of personality, according to Buddha, arises due to our memory and habits. The individual personality doesn’t exist after death. Like empiricism, Buddha also thought that the sensory inputs were the only source of knowledge. However, according to Buddhism, the study of psychological individualism is futile as the separate beings are merely passing manifestations of little worth. He emphasized ascetic self-discipline and training to attain happiness in the face of the annihilation of individual consciousness and also encouraged us to participate in the experience of Spirit, which lies at our essence. 19 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 19 4/1/2021 3:09:03 PM  Development of 1.3.1.3 Jainism Psychological Thought Jainism, also known as Jain Dharma, derives its philosophical and spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty-four leaders or Tirthankars. The 24th Tirthankara, Lord Mahavira lived around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered to be eternal dharma with the Tirthankaras guiding HYHU\ WLPH F\FOH RI WKH FRVPRORJ\ -DLQLVP GL൵HUV IURP +LQGXLVP DQG Buddhism in ontological assumptions. While Hinduism believes in eternal unchanging atman and Buddhism assumes anatta (no eternal soul or self), Jainism incorporates an eternal but changing jiva (self). There are three main principles of Jainism – Ahimsa (non-violence), Anekantavada (many- sidedness), and Aparigraha (non-attachment). The last two principles have implications for contemporary psychological issues. According to the principle of anekantavad, reality or truth has several dimensions and it is impossible to express the experiences of truth through language. Our description of reality is relative and partial. Even, in contemporary cognitive SV\FKRORJ\DQGSKLORVRSK\UHVHDUFK¿QGLQJVVXSSRUWWKLVYLHZDERXWWKH description of reality. Jainism, further, postulates that there are three sources of true knowledge – Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), and Sabda (testimony). According to the principle of aparigraha, attachment to worldly things or emotions can cause damage to the soul. Therefore, the emphasis is to remain detached from the material and psychological reality IRUDWWDLQLQJZHOOEHLQJ,QWKLVUHVSHFW-DLQLVP¶VWHDFKLQJLVGL൵HUHQWIURP WKDWRI:HVWHUQSV\FKRORJ\DVWKHODWWHUSURPRWHVWKHIXO¿OOPHQWRIGHVLUHV by the individuals for attaining well-being. As India is characterised by its religious, cultural, ethnic, and linguistic diversity, the discussion of these three religious philosophies do not exhaust the complexities of the society. Any description of Indian psychology based on these three religious-philosophical systems only is a partial representation of Indian psychology. It is an important point, which we should keep in mind while discussing Indian psychology. 1.3.2 China Written around 1120 BCE the I-Ching, or the Book of Change, attributed to Wen Wang, is one of the earliest recorded Chinese literature on metaphysics. Confucius (551-479 BCE), an eminent Chinese philosopher, found this book above all other books and wanted to live 50 years longer to study this book properly. I-Ching highlights the vagueness of theology and relativity of moral principles and thus shows the search for the absolute truth and universal principle futile and untenable. Instead, it promotes the development of practical knowledge. Lao-tze (604-531 BCE), probably the greatest philosopher of the pre-Confucian era, wrote Tao-Te-Ching, the Book of the Ways and Virtues, which is the main basis of Taoist philosophy. Taoist philosophy encourages living in harmony with the natural order and ¿QGVOLWWOHYDOXHLQSXUVXLQJLQWHOOHFWXDONQRZOHGJHDVLWFUHDWHVFRQIXVLRQ in the minds of the people. Confucius, the greatest of Chinese philosophers, did not deny the existence of God and can be viewed as an agnostic. His philosophy, known as Confucianism, consists of an array of practical teachings leading to the development of morality and conducting politics. In his view, ideal persons are very important for society, and for him, an ideal person is trustworthy, loyal, sincere, and intellectually curious, but 20 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 20 4/1/2021 3:09:04 PM  aloof and thoughtful. For him, the family is an important social institution Historical and that can nurture ideal persons as well as support the larger social structure. Philosophical Context of Psychological Thought His philosophy was conservative as he thought preserving the unity of life is more important than pursuing individual goals in life. Chinese history did not SURGXFHDVFLHQWL¿FDJHOLNHWKDWRISRVWUHQDLVVDQFH(XURSH7KHVFLHQWL¿F study never was the dominant ideal for the Chinese philosophers as they valued maintaining harmony and order rather than innovative knowledge. 'XHWRWKHLQÀXHQFHRIVXFKSKLORVRSKLHVWKHJRDORIVRFLDOL]DWLRQZDVWR encourage a tendency to conform to the moral code of society. 1.4 CONCLUDING COMMENTS The discussion of the various philosophical systems of non-Western societies, despite being heterogeneous, reveals that they are fundamentally GL൵HUHQWIURPWKH:HVWHUQSKLORVRSKLHV,QWKHODWWHULQGLYLGXDOSHUVRQVDQG IXO¿OOPHQWRIWKHLUGHVLUHVDUHDFFRUGHGDORWRILPSRUWDQFHDQGVRFLHW\LV expected to support the individuals to pursue their personal goals. Further, innovation and experimentation are valued and encouraged in Western psychological thoughts. On the other hand, in the non-Western philosophies, individualism is not valued and importance is given to the renouncement of personal desires so that social harmony can be maintained. As the Western SKLORVRSKLHVKDYHDPDMRULQÀXHQFHLQQXUWXULQJVHOIFRQVFLRXVLQGLYLGXDOV by developing new types of social, cultural, and political institutions, in a similar way the non-Western philosophies nurtured socially or spiritually RULHQWHGSHUVRQVE\SURPRWLQJGL൵HUHQWLGHDOVIRUWKHLUSHRSOH7KHUHIRUH Western psychological concepts and theories may not be useful to understand and explain the psychological processes and behaviours of non- Western people. Hence, we should avoid applying Western psychologies in Indian situations. At this point, there is a word of caution for the student of SV\FKRORJ\7KHVH GL൵HUHQFHV EHWZHHQ WKH:HVWHUQ DQG WKH QRQ:HVWHUQ societies are not absolute and permanent. In contemporary times, due to LQFUHDVLQJ IDFLOLWLHV RI FRPPXQLFDWLRQ DQG D൵RUGDEOH DLUWUDYHO SHRSOH from both the worlds are getting exposure of the other societies and hence WKHUHLVDSRVVLELOLW\WKDWWKHGL൵HUHQFHVLQWKHSV\FKRORJ\RIWKHSHRSOHRI WKHWZRZRUOGVZLOOUHGXFHVLJQL¿FDQWO\ Keeping this discussion in mind, you will understand that all the subsequent 8QLWVLQWKLVFRXUVHGHDOZLWKWKHGL൵HUHQWVFKRROVRI:HVWHUQSV\FKRORJ\ only, and there is a need to know about other non-Western psychological thoughts as well. Check Your Progress 3  +RZ LV WKH :HVWHUQ SV\FKRORJLFDO FRQFHSW RI µSHUVRQ¶ GL൵HUHQW from that in Hinduism? …………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………  /LVW WZR VLJQL¿FDQW FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RI WKH SKLORVRSKLFDO V\VWHPV from non-Western societies. …………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………… 21 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 21 4/1/2021 3:09:04 PM  Development of Psychological Thought 1.5 SUMMARY Now that we have come to the end of this Unit, let us list all the major points that we have learned: Ɣ The term ‘psychology’ refers to a set of diverse concepts. One important source of diversity in psychological thoughts is the philosophical positions that the thinkers held. Ɣ Three philosophical positions — rationalism, empiricism, and SKHQRPHQRORJ\KDYHLQÀXHQFHGWKHYDULRXVSV\FKRORJLFDOWKRXJKWV Ɣ Zeitgeist approach to the history of psychological thought sensitizes the readers to the connection between psychological thoughts and the broader socio-political factors. Ɣ Psychological theories developed in the United States, especially after World War II, dominated academic psychology. Academic psychology is, in fact, Western psychology, and the thinkers from the non-Western societies, especially during the ancient and medieval period, have also developed distinct psychological thoughts. Ɣ ,Q:HVWHUQSV\FKRORJLFDOWKRXJKWVDQLQGLYLGXDOIXO¿OOLQJDSHUVRQ¶V needs is given importance whereas in non-Western thoughts person’s relation with the society or universe has been given importance. Ɣ In Hindu philosophy, transcending individualism is the goal. In Buddhhism, humans are governed by the determinism of habit, heredity, and environmental events. Jainism includes an eternal but changing self. Ɣ Taoism and Confucianism are two important philosophies that emerged from China. The former is concerned with the search for meaning and the latter deals with social matters. 1.6 KEY WORDS Empiricism: A philosophical position that states that valid knowledge comes only from sensory experiences. Any knowledge that is not based on sensory information not considered as valid knowledge. Rationalism: A philosophical position according to which knowledge is based on the use of reason or logic. Rene Descartes, the famous French philosopher, is supposed to formalize this perspective in the western philosophy. Phenomenology: Study of structures of consciousness as experienced by WKH¿UVWSHUVRQSRLQWRIYLHZ Paradigm A system of belief, assumptions, values, and thinking about the world. Rather than being a theory of a particular thing or phenomenon, it is a world view. Zeitgeist: Refers to an invisible agent or force dominating the characteristics of a given epoch. Atman: According to the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, Atman is WKH WUXH VHOI RI DQ LQGLYLGXDO EH\RQG LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ ZLWK SKHQRPHQD WKH essence of an individual. 22 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 22 4/1/2021 3:09:04 PM  Brahman: Connotes the highest Universal Principle, the ultimate reality in Historical and the universe. The atman is the part of Brahman. Philosophical Context of Psychological Thought Ahimsa: Principle of non-violence. It is one of the important principles of Buddhism. Aparigraha: In Hinduism and Jainism, aparigraha refers to the virtue of non-possessiveness, non-greediness. Anekantavada: Jain doctrine that states that the ultimate truth and reality is complex and has multiple aspects. Taoism: Chinese philosophical tradition that emphasizes living in harmony with nature. 1.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS 1) Structuralism and Behaviourism rely mainly on experimental method whereas humanistic school uses …………………. 2) $FFRUGLQJWR.XKQVFLHQWL¿FNQRZOHGJHLV««««««« 3) Why is it important to know the philosophical bases of psychological thoughts? 4) How does the zeitgeist approach to history explain the changes in psychological thoughts? 5) Why only Western psychological thoughts are taught in most of the non-Western academic institutions? 6) 'LVFXVVDWOHDVWWZRSRLQWVRIGL൵HUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKH:HVWHUQDQGWKH non-Western psychological thoughts. 1.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING Brennan, J. F. (2014). History and Systems of Psychology. Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd. Danziger, K. (1990). Constructing the Subject: Historical Origins of Psychological Research. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Danziger, K. (2006). Universalism and indigenization in the history of modern psychology. In A.C. Brock (Ed.), Internationalizing the History of Psychology. New York University Press, 2006, pp. 208-225. Hergenhahn, B. R. & Henley, T. B. (2009). An Introduction to the History of Psychology. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Kuhn, T.S. (1962). 7KH 6WUXFWXUH RI 6FLHQWL¿F 5HYROXWLRQV. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Misra G. (2013). Culture and self: Some emerging concerns. In G.Misra (Ed.) Psychology and Psychoanalysis vol. 13, part 3. (pp.371-383) as a part of D.P. Chattopadhyay (Gen. Ed.) History of Science, Philosophy, and Culture in Indian Civilization. New Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations. Schultz D. P. & Schultz, S. E. (2008). A History of Modern Psychology. Wadsworth: Thomson Learning, Inc. 23 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 23 4/1/2021 3:09:04 PM  Development of Psychological Thought 1.9 WEB RESOURCES For more information, visit; Ɣ The Core and Context of Indian Psychology PDS~22_1_05-Dalal & Misra.indd (ipi.org.in) Ɣ A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India À (ipi.org.in) Ɣ Indian thought and tradition: A psychohistorical perspective IPI — Indian thought and tradition: A psychohistorical perspective Ɣ Classics in the History of Psychology -- Topic Index (yorku.ca) Ɣ History of Psychology | Noba (nobaproject.com) Answers to Review Questions (1-2) 1) phenomenological approach to understand the experiences of the person. 2) relative 24 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 24 4/1/2021 3:09:04 PM  UNIT 2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO EARLY MODERN PSYCHOLOGY: HELMHOLTZ, FECHNER, WUNDT, AND JAMES* Structure 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Helmholtz 2.1.1 Principle of Conservation of Energy 2.1.2 Rate of Nerve Conduction 2.1.3 Theory of Perception 2.1.4 Young-Helmholtz Theory of Color Vision 2.1.5 Visual Illusions 2.1.6 Auditory Perception 2.2 Fechner 2.2.1 Psychophysics   7KH-1' -XVW1RWLFHDEOH'L൵HUHQFH DVWKH8QLWRI6HQVDWLRQ 2.2.3 Psychophysical Methods 2.3 Wilhelm Wundt 2.3.1 Consciousness 2.3.2 Voluntarism 2.3.3 Mediate and Immediate Experience 2.3.4 Introspection 2.3.5 Elements of Consciousness 2.3.6 Organization of the Elements of Consciousness 2.4 William James 2.4.1 The Principles of Psychology 2.4.2 Consciousness 2.4.3 The Methods of Psychology 2.4.4 Pragmatism 2.4.5 Emotions 2.4.6 The Three-Piece Self 2.4.7 Habit 2.5 Summary 2.6 Key Words 2.7 Review Questions * Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Psychology, Vivekananda College, University of Delhi BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 25 4/1/2021 3:09:04 PM  Development of 2.8 References and Further Reading Psychological Thought 2.9 References for Figures 2.10 Web Resources Learning Objectives After reading this Unit, you will be able to; Ɣ 7UDFHWKHGHYHORSPHQWRISV\FKRORJ\DVDVFLHQWL¿FGLVFLSOLQH Ɣ Discuss the role of experimental physiology in the discipline of psychology; and Ɣ Describe the contributions of Hermann von Helmholtz, Gustav Theodor Fechner, Wilhelm Wundt, and William James. 2.0 INTRODUCTION 7KHVFLHQWL¿Fdiscoveries that took place in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries made it possible for many of the longstanding philosophical questions to be explored and analyzed in a lot more precision. These discoveries gave a lot of answers about the physical world, and it seemed to be the right time for science to make a shift towards understanding the physiological mechanisms that help in understanding the physical world. This led to the rise of empirical research in physiology. In the nineteenth FHQWXU\ PDQ\ VLJQL¿FDQW LQYHVWLJDWLRQV VXFK DV QHUYRXV V\VWHP DFWLYLW\ sensations, and brain physiology took place, indicating the advantages of V\VWHPDWLFHPSLULFDOUHVHDUFK7KLVEHQH¿WHGWKHGLVFLSOLQHRISV\FKRORJ\ to a great extent, as it allowed physiological explanations of mental operations. Scholars, in that time, were majorly interested in understanding the ways in which external events are represented in consciousness. Intensive investigations were made in many areas such as sense perception and motor Different laboratories began reactions, which eventually led to the emergence of experimental psychology. opening after 1879. ,Q  :LOKHOP :XQGW HVWDEOLVKHG WKH ¿UVW H[SHULPHQWDO SV\FKRORJ\ laboratory at the University of Leipzig. The laboratory consisted of four rooms. Four years later, in 1883, a four-room experimental psychology laboratory opened at John Hopkins University, USA. Similar experimental ODERUDWRULHV EHJDQ RSHQLQJ LQ GL൵HUHQW SDUWV RI WKH ZRUOG ZLWKLQ D VKRUW period of time. In 1886, an experimental psychology laboratory opened in University of Kazan, Russia (1889), at the Sorbonne, France (1892), at the University of Groningen, Netherlands, and in 1898, at University College London, England. 7KHVHGL൵HUHQWODERUDWRULHVRSHQLQJLQGL൵HUHQWSDUWVRIWKHZRUOGLQDVKRUW SHULRG RI WLPH JDYH DQ LQGLFDWLRQ WKDW WKH ¿UVW H[SHULPHQWDO SV\FKRORJ\ opening at Leipzig was not an unusual event. It actually resulted due to the LQWHOOHFWXDO GHYHORSPHQWV WKDW ZHUH WDNLQJ SODFH LQ GL൵HUHQW SDUWV RI WKH world. It was the spirit of times that was making psychology develop into a VFLHQWL¿FDFDGHPLFGLVFLSOLQH6XUHO\WKHFRQWULEXWLRQLQWKLVGHYHORSPHQW made by Wilhelm Wundt cannot be denied. But it was the contributions of others such as Helmholtz and Fechner that gave Wundt that platform. 26 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 26 4/1/2021 3:09:04 PM  Contributions To Early Modern 2.1 HERMANN VON HELMHOLTZ Psychology: Helmholtz, Fechner, Wundt, and James Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz is considered to be one of the JUHDWHVW*HUPDQVFLHQWLVWVRIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\+HPDGHVLJQL¿FDQW contributions in physics, physiology, and psychology. He gave emphasis to a mechanistic and deterministic approach, suggesting that human sense organs function just like a machine. Among physics, physiology, and psychology, psychology was the least preferred discipline for Helmholtz. Despite that, his contributions in psychology made it instrumental to make LWDVFLHQWL¿FGLVFLSOLQH Box 2.1: Hermann von Helmholtz +HUPDQQYRQ+HOPKROW]ZDVKLJKO\VFLHQWL¿FLQKLVQDWXUH:LWKJUHDW experimental rigor, more than anyone else before him, he demonstrated the mechanisms by people interacted with the physical world. He gave his explanations in terms of objective, physical laws. Helmholtz emphasized RQ WKH DSSOLHG RU SUDFWLFDO EHQH¿WV RI VFLHQWL¿F UHVHDUFK +H GLG QRW believe in conducting experiments just to gather large numbers of data. He DFWXDOO\EHOLHYHGWKDWVFLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFKVKRXOGEHXVHGWRVROYHSUDFWLFDO problems. Figure 2.1: Hermann von Helmholtz did not consider himself to be a psychologist. But his Helmholtz (1821-1894) contributions in the study of human senses helped to strengthen the Source: www.britannica.com experimental approach in understanding psychological issues. The work of Helmholtz brought physics, chemistry, physiology, and psychology closer together. This, eventually, led to the emergence of experimental psychology. In many ways, experimental psychology is considered to be the inevitable step after the work of Helmholtz. 2.1.1 Principle of Conservation of Energy In one of his earliest researches, Helmholtz studied the metabolic processes of frogs. He demonstrated that the consumption of food and oxygen by the frog were able to account for the total energy consumed by the organism. By doing so, Helmholtz applied the well-known principle of conservation of energy to living organisms. The principle had been earlier used to explain physical phenomena. The principle of conservation of energy suggests that energy is never lost in a system, it only gets transformed from one form to another. Helmholtz used the materialist philosophy by the applying the principle of conservation of energy to living organisms. In doing so, he brought physics, chemistry, and biology close to each other. In 1847, +HOPKROW]SXEOLVKHGDKLJKO\LQÀXHQWLDOSDSHUFDOOHGThe Conservation of Force. /DWHU 6LJPXQG )UHXG ZDV KLJKO\ LQÀXHQFHG E\ +HOPKROW] LQ WKH usage of the principle of conservation of energy for living organisms. Freud applied the principle in explaining his idea of psychic energy. 2.1.2 Rate of Nerve Conduction Earlier it was believed that nerve conduction was too fast to be measured. +RZHYHU +HOPKROW] GLG QRW DJUHH ZLWK LW DQG PDGH SLRQHHULQJ H൵RUWV to measure the rate of nerve conduction. In order to do this, Helmholtz electrically stimulated the motor nerve of the leg of a frog. The frog was already dead, but there was life in its leg. The stimulation of the nerve 27 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 27 4/1/2021 3:09:05 PM  Development of caused the contracting of the muscle. He attached a minute pen to the end Psychological Thought of the frog’s leg, which drew upon a moving drum. Using this arrangement, Helmholtz was able to compare the time between the stimulation of the QHUYHDQGWKHWLPHWKHSHQ¿UVWPRYHG+HZDVDEOHWRFDOFXODWHWKHUDWHRI the motor nerve transmission, as he knew the length of the nerve. The rate of nerve transmission, according to Helmholtz, came out to be 25 to 30 meters per second. After measuring the nerve transmission in a frog, Helmholtz decided to measure the rate of transmission of sensory nerves in humans. He tried to do this by using touch as a stimulus. Helmholtz found that reaction time is longer when the foot is stimulated as compared to the face. This means reaction time is determined by how further away the stimulus is from the brain. By subtracting the reaction time of the short distance with that of the long distance, Helmholtz was able to calculate the rate of sensory nerve conduction, which came out be 50 to 100 meters per second. +HOPKROW]¶VUHVHDUFKIRUPHDVXULQJQHUYHFRQGXFWLRQZDVKLJKO\VLJQL¿FDQW because it demonstrated that nerve impulses can actually be measured, and are also relatively slow than it was initially believed to be. This also gave evidence that physical and chemical processes are a part of interactions with WKHHQYLURQPHQWDQGDUHHQWLWLHVWKDWDUHQRWEH\RQGVFLHQWL¿FHYDOXDWLRQ Later on, Helmholtz found that reaction time, in order to measure nerve FRQGXFWLRQ YDULHG LQ GL൵HUHQW LQGLYLGXDOV ,W HYHQ YDULHG IRU WKH VDPH LQGLYLGXDO DW GL൵HUHQW WLPHV +H FDPH WR WKH FRQFOXVLRQ WKDW UHDFWLRQ time is not a reliable and valid method of measuring nerve conduction, and eventually abandoned it. This discovery, however, does not deny the VLJQL¿FDQFHRIWKHSLRQHHULQJUHVHDUFKGRQHE\+HOPKROW] 2.1.3 Theory of Perception According to Helmholtz, the past experiences of an observer play a role in converting sensation to perception. Sensations, thus, can be considered to be the raw elements of consciousness. When sensations are given some meaning with respect to past experiences, then it is called perception. This transformation of sensation to perception, that is, sensation given meaning, on the basis of past experiences was termed by Helmholtz as unconscious inference. Helmholtz suggested that the label given to any object involves applying past experiences. This was further explained by Helmholtz by using the example of depth perception. Depth perception takes place EHFDXVHWKHUHWLQDOLPDJHDQREMHFWFDXVHVLVVOLJKWO\GL൵HUHQWRQWKHWZR retinas. An individual’s past experiences with such retinal disparity causes the unconscious inference of depth. Helmholtz’s theory of perception can be supported by his observation of people who are blind at birth and acquire sight later on. Such people need to learn how to perceive, even though all the sensations furnished by the visual apparatus are available. Apart from these observations, Helmholtz’s classic experiments with lenses that distort vision, provide further evidence for his theory. In these experiments, Helmholtz had subjects wear lenses WKDW GLVSODFHG WKH YLVXDO ¿HOG VHYHUDO LQFKHV WR WKH ULJKW RU OHIW ,QLWLDOO\ the subjects made mistakes in reaching for the objects. After some time, however, perceptual adaptation took place, and despite wearing the glasses, 28 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 28 4/1/2021 3:09:05 PM  the subjects were able to interact accurately with the environment. When Contributions To Early Modern the subjects removed the glasses, they again made mistakes initially, but Psychology: Helmholtz, Fechner, Wundt, and James then after a while recovered. 2.1.4 Young-Helmholtz Theory of Colour Vision Thomas Young (1801) had proposed a theory of colour vision, which was similar to what Helmholtz had come up with, many years later. The theory of Young had not been very widely accepted. Helmholtz made slight changes in the theory of Young and supported it with experimental evidence. The theory, then, came to be known as the Young-Helmholtz theory of colour vision. The theory is also called the trichromatic theory. Helmholtz SRVWXODWHG WKDW WKHUH DUH WKUHH GL൵HUHQW W\SHV RI FRORXU UHFHSWRUV RQ WKH retina, corresponding to the three primary colors, which are red, green, and blue. He further suggested that if a red light is shown, then the red receptors get stimulated, leading to a sensation of red. Similarly, if a green or blue light is shown, then green or blue receptors, respectively, get stimulated, leading to a sensation of green or blue. In addition to that, all the these primary colours are shown at once, then there is an experience of white. ,I QRQH RI WKH SULPDU\ FRORXUV DUH VKRZQ WKHQ LW ZLOO VWLPXODWH GL൵HUHQW combinations of the three receptors, which will lead to an experience of a subjective colour, corresponding to the combination of wavelengths present. The Young-Helmholtz theory of colour vision has been found to be very XVHIXOLQH[SODLQLQJGL൵HUHQWIRUPVRIFRORXUEOLQGQHVV,IDSHUVRQODFNV one or more receptors corresponding to any of the primary colours, that person will not be able to experience certain colours subjectively, even when the physical world remains the same. 2.1.5 Visual Illusions Helmholtz was one of the earlier researchers who investigated the phenomenon of visual illusions. According to Helmholtz, illusions take place when visual conditions are not normal. Due to this, Helmholtz felt that illusions can help in the understanding of the normal functioning of the eye. This means that abnormality can help in studying the normal. 5HJDUGLQJWKLV+HOPKROW]PDGHDVLJQL¿FDQWFRQWULEXWLRQZKHQLWFRPHVWR analysing the optics of the eye. For this, he developed a wide range of optical instruments such as optometers, ophthalmometers, and ophthalmoscopes. These instruments were used by scientists to investigate the functioning of the eye. 2.1.6 Theory of Auditory Perception Helmholtz found that the ear is not a single sense receptor. Instead, the ear is actually a highly complicated system of many receptors. Compared to WKHYLVXDOV\VWHPWKDWKDVWKUHHQHUYH¿EUHVWKHDXGLWRU\V\VWHPLVNQRZQ WRKDYHWKRXVDQGVRIQHUYH¿EUHVHDFKQHUYH¿EUHVKDYLQJLWVRZQVSHFL¿F QHUYH HQHUJ\ +HOPKROW] VSHFXODWHG WKDW GL൵HUHQW ¿EUHV DORQJ WKH EDVLODU PHPEUDQH DUH VHQVLWLYH WR GL൵HUHQFHV LQ WKH IUHTXHQF\ RI VRXQG ZDYHV 7KH VKRUW ¿EUHV UHVSRQG WR WKH KLJKHU IUHTXHQFLHV DQG WKH ORQJHU ¿EUHV UHVSRQG WR WKH ORZHU IUHTXHQFLHV$ ZDYH RI D VSHFL¿F IUHTXHQF\ FDXVHV WKH DSSURSULDWH ¿EUH RI WKH EDVLODU PHPEUDQH WR YLEUDWH ZKLFK OHDGV WR a sensation of sound that corresponds to that frequency. This process is referred to as sympathetic vibration. 29 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 29 4/1/2021 3:09:05 PM  Development of Helmholtz believed that a similar process takes place in the middle ear. Psychological Thought 7KURXJK YDULRXV FRPELQDWLRQV RI ¿EUH VWLPXODWLRQ WKH ZLGH UDQJH RI auditory experiences can be explained. This theory is known as the Resonance Place Theory of Auditory Perception. There are some variations of this theory in today’s time. 2.2 GUSTAV THEODOR FECHNER Gustav Theodor Fechner contributed to a number of intellectual pursuits in his life. He was a German physiologist, physicist, philosopher, psychophysicist, and experimental ethicist. Among all his contributions, he is mostly known for his work in psychophysics. His contributions in psychophysics are considered to be a major precursor to the emergence of SV\FKRORJ\DVDQLQGHSHQGHQWVFLHQWL¿FGLVFLSOLQH Box 2.2: Gustav Theodor Fechner ,QDERXW*XVWDY7KHRGRU)HFKQHUVX൵HUHGDQHUYRXVEUHDNGRZQ Figure 2.2: Gustav Theodor He became a recluse and developed severe depression. This resulted in Fechner ( 1801-1897) Fechner’s interest to change from physics to philosophy. He became Source: www.history-of- highly interested in studying the mind-body problem. His interest in psychology.readthedocs.io the mind-body problem got him interested in studying the quantitative relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce. He thus, came to be known as the pioneer of psychophysics ± WKH VFLHQWL¿F VWXG\ RI WKH UHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ SK\VLFDO VWLPXOL DQG WKH sensations and perceptions that they evoke. Even though, he strongly intended to, Fechner did not really resolve the mind-body problem. However, he did demonstrate that it was possible to quantitatively measure mental events and associate them with physical events. It is often suggested that, instead of Wundt, the beginning of experimental psychology should be credited to Fechner’s book Elements of Psychophysics, published in 1860. Wundt, himself does not completely deny this claim. Titchener also has often referred to Fechner as the father of experimental psychology. 2.2.1 Psychophysics Fechner is considered to be the major proponent of psychophysics. He wanted to understand the relationship between sensations and perceptions in a much better way. This movement named as psychophysics emerged from his book Elemente der Psychophysik (Elements of Psychophysics), which was published in 1860. Fechner wanted it to be an exact science of the functional relations between the mind and the body. Fechner’s interest in the philosophical issue of the mind and body relationship developed from his idea of psychophysics. He was adamant in solving the mind-body SUREOHPLQWHUPVRIDSXUHO\VFLHQWL¿FPDQQHUWKDWLVLQPDWHULDOLVWLFWHUPV Fechner felt that the mind and body are two aspects of the same fundamental reality, which is what Spinoza had suggested calling it double aspectism. In this way, Fechner agreed with the double aspectism of Spinoza, and disagreed with Descartes’s mind-body dualism. Fechner actually wanted to prove the idea of double aspectism instead of just of speculating about it. 30 BPCC 106_2nd Proof.indd 30 4/1/2021 3:09:05 PM  Fechner came up with a way to prove it on one morning in 1850. He realized Contributions To Early Modern that if a person were asked to report changes in sensations as a physical Psychology: Helmholtz, Fechner, Wundt, and James stimulus was systematically varied, it could easily demonstrate that there is a systematic relationship bodily and mental experiences. Fechner felt that for mental sensations to change arithmetically, the physical stimulus would have to change geometrically. By testing these ideas, Fechner eventually FUHDWHG WKH ¿HOG NQRZQ DV SV\FKRSK\VLFV ² WKH VFLHQWL¿F VWXG\ RI WKH relation between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions that they evoke. Psychophysics emphasizes on the subjective experiences in the study of the relationship between physical stimuli and sensations. It examines sensations IURP PDQ\ GL൵HUHQW SHUVSHFWLYHV 3V\FKRSK\VLFV FRQVLGHUV VHQVDWLRQV with respect to the mind-body problem, and not entirely as a situation for anatomical and physical study. It is within the realms of physiology, physics, and natural philosophy. 3V\FKRSK\VLFV SOD\HG D VLJQL¿FDQW UROH LQ WKH WUDQVLWLRQ IURP VWXG\LQJ physiological and physical components of sensation to the beginning of psychology as an independent discipline. It is, therefore, considered to be one the immediate precursors of modern psychology.  7KH-1' -XVW1RWLFHDEOH'L൵HUHQFH DVWKH8QLWRI Sensation Fechner believed that as the magnitude of a stimulus increases from zero, it would eventually reach a point where the stimulus can get detected consciously. The lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be detected is referred to as the absolute threshold. Absolute threshold, thus, is the intensity of a stimulus at or above which a sensation is detected. Below the absolute threshold, no sensation can be detected. Fechner suggested that reactions do take place for intensity levels below the absolute threshold, but those reactions are unconscious. Fechner felt that the absolute threshold is only one measure of sensations, and that is its usage is very limited. Fechner actually wanted to have a continuous scale that indicated how sensations that are above the absolute threshold varied as a function of level of stimulation. This was done by using the GLৼHUHQWLDO WKUHVKROG, which refers to how much a stimulus magnitude needs to be increased or decreased for an individual to detect D GL൵HUHQFH MXVWQRWLFHDEOH GL൵HUHQFH RU -1'  )HFKQHU ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WKHGL൵HUHQWLDOWKUHVKROGIRXQGWKDWLQWHQVLWLHVPXVWFKDQJHLQJHRPHWULF manner for sensation to change arithmetically. He, thus, assumed that when there would be geometric increase in the intensity of a stimulus, the sensations would increase in equal increments (JNDs). This assumption made it possible for Fechner to deduce how many JNDs above the absolute threshold a particular sensation was at any given level of intensity of the stimulus. Accordingly, it can be said, that Fechner’s law assumed that when stimulus intensity increases in a geometric manner beyond the absolute threshold, sensation increases in equal units (JNDs). In using the i