BIG FAT HISTORY STUDY GUIDE PDF

Unit 1: The Industrial Revolution *=more information necessary England ​ Who: Inventors like James Watt (steam engine), Robert Fulton (paddle steamer), Michael Faraday (electric motor) ​ What: The Industrial Revolution, which started in England in around 1760, was characterized by the...

Unit 1: The Industrial Revolution *=more information necessary England ​ Who: Inventors like James Watt (steam engine), Robert Fulton (paddle steamer), Michael Faraday (electric motor) ​ What: The Industrial Revolution, which started in England in around 1760, was characterized by the shift from cottage industry (hand-crafted, individually produced products) to factory industry (mass-produced goods). While laborers had previously worked at home in family units, the Industrial Revolution marked the creation of the “nine-to-five” where workers clocked in at factories, made parts for products lacking any individualism, and then clocked out. This time period introduced many unethical labor practices, most notably child labor; it also devastated the environment by exploiting fossil fuels. However, the huge increase in productivity made England incredibly competitive on the global trade market, propelling it into a position as a world power. ​ When: Approx. 1760-1840 ​ Why: The fact that the Industrial Revolution started in England was really just a happy coincidence. England had masses of coal near riverbeds and harbors, so it was cheap to export and therefore cheap to sell. England also had very high labor costs, so it made sense to find a way to use coal (developing machines cheaper) to cut down on labor costs. England also had plenty of colonies whom it could exploit for raw materials. ○​ Massive rural⇒urban migration ○​ Passed laws protecting entrepreneurs ​ How: The Industrial Revolution was essentially an energy revolution. As coal use increased and inventors like Watt perfected steam power, muscle power became obsolete in the face of machine power. This also marked the beginning of the global energy transition to fossil fuels. The Neolithic Revolution (farming) was also an energy revolution because humans could harvest more energy from crops than they could hunt/gather. In the Industrial  Revolution, the scale of increase in energy production was much larger and humans gained full control of the energy source - they no longer had to depend on outside factors like the sun. ​ *Impacts: ○​ Industrial: The first industries to see benefits from industrialization were textiles, iron, locomotives/railways, and steamships. ​ Textiles, previously woven by hand, could now be machine-made, especially with the invention of the flying shuttle. Britain also enacted a tariff on Indian textiles to incentivize textile production within the nation. ​ Note that increased textile production also necessitated more raw cotton, which, after the invention of the cotton gin, led to a resurgence of the slave trade. ​ Iron ​ Coal expanded the iron industry and made it more profitable. Iron soon became the basis for most British infrastructure and led to the development of many new technologies. ​ Locomotives/railways ​ With the help of coal as fuel for locomotives and iron to make rails, Britain soon became the most interconnected city in the world. ​ Steamships ​ Were used for trade ​ US trade with Japan ○​ Commodore Perry ​ See Japan ​ Used to transport goods farther and faster ​ Built from coal + iron ○​ Social: Creation of the working class, the middle class, and the industrialists. ​ The working class (40-45%) comprised the lowly laborers in factories, mills, and mines. Working conditions were very bad. Wages would often be cut as prices for goods would be lowered  due to competition. Workers stopped specializing in tasks, instead learning how to work in factories. ​ The middle class (10-15%) included those who worked more prestigious jobs but still earned modest wages. ​ The industrialists (small %) were those who owned the factories, mills, and mines where the working class labored. ​ Child labor also abounded. Kids worked in factories because their parents needed money. Children were valued because they were tiny and easy to take advantage of. ○​ Environmental: The exploitation of fossil fuels created thick clouds of soot over cities and instances of acid rain. Many people working in factories or even living near them fell sick, and few survived for long. US ​ Who: Alexander Hamilton ​ What: The US Industrial Revolution was characterized by 3 main developments: the American System, government interference in industry, and economies of scale. ○​ The American System was based on market economy. Workers in one place would produce a part of a whole, then that part would be joined with other parts from other factories to build a whole product. The American System made individual labor and handcrafted goods obsolete, but it greatly increased productivity across America. ○​ The government played a big part in encouraging industrialization. It raised tariffs, supported infrastructure, created the patent system, and even financed some inventors like Samuel Morse. The American people sacrificed some freedom from government interference in exchange for an industrialized economy. ○​ An economy of scale is the cost advantage (saving costs) experienced by a firm when it increases its level of production. Since the Industrial Revolution was essential in increasing American production, economies of scale became very relevant. ​ When: 1865-1900  ​ Why: A growing demand for goods, new inventions brought over from England (USA wanted to compete with England), and the availability of labor were all factors in the industrialization of the US. ​ How: ○​ Construction of railroads ○​ Technological advances, including the telephone, typewriter, and phonograph ○​ Use of petroleum ​ Impacts: Labor unions; the creation of a class of industrialists (ex. John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie); growth of foreign and domestic trade; emergence of the US as a political power *Germany ​ Who: Friedrich List, German entrepreneur who developed nationalism ​ What: Germany was fairly late to industrialize, since it had fewer raw resources (but it had COAL) and it wasn’t unified until 1871. However, when it did begin to industrialize, it did so rapidly. The government was highly supportive of industrialization and invested substantially in science and technology. ​ When: 1845-1900 ​ Why: Germany knew that to rival Britain, it had to industrialize quickly. ​ How: The government invested in technical education, research institutes, and scientific pursuits. It also put up tariffs to eliminate foreign competition. This tactic is known as economic protectionism. ​ Impacts: ○​ The creation of the SPD (Social Democratic Party), a labor movement. The most radical members (small amount) of the SPD supported Marxism (see Ideological). Otto von Bismarck, the German chancellor, took a compromising approach to those who threatened labor unrest. Although he mandated that the state provide pension, health insurance, and unemployment benefits, as well as encouraging compromise on wages and working conditions, he also banned unions, including the SPD. ○​ Germany became a world power, rivaling Britain in many areas. *Russia ​ Who: Sergei Witte was the main proponent of Russia’s Industrial Revolution (he was inspired by list who was inspired by Hamilton) ​ What: The Russian Industrial Revolution faced many initial obstacles. First and foremost, Russia had a very small middle class and a very large, uneducated, serf class, which meant that there was little market (middle class = consumer) for the goods that industrialization produced. The country also had very few technically trained individuals who could build and operate the necessary machinery. The legal system made it difficult to create businesses, and the country’s transportation infrastructure was creaky. For these reasons, the Russian elites didn’t support industrialization until Russia’s embarrassing defeat in the Crimean War. After said defeat, elites realized that the only way for Russia to keep up with the rest of the world was for it to industrialize. ○​ Note: although most industrialized countries started the process from below, Russia started it at a state level ​ When: 1870-1917 ​ Why: Russia, after its defeat in the Crimean War, wanted to strengthen its military. ​ How: The Trans-Siberian Railway allowed Russia access to Siberian resources. ​ Impacts: Russia abolished serfdom on its journey to industrialization. The Revolution caused the urbanization of the country, which led to urban pollution and food shortages. Japan ​ Who: Shibusawa Eiichi, introduced capitalism to Japan ​ What: Since the feudal system was established, Japan had been abiding by a sakoku (closed-door) isolationist policy. Japanese were not allowed to go abroad because foreign powers were deemed a military threat; they were also not allowed to observe Christianity because it was thought to undermine loyalty to feudal lords. When Matthew Perry led his ships into the Tokyo Bay seeking to reestablish trade with Japan, Japan realized that its national security was weak. It was dealing with conflicts from within as the feudal system decayed, so Japanese reformers began instituting the Meiji  Restoration. The Meiji Restoration restored imperial rule to Japan, but it also introduced elements of Western culture and industrialization. The government reestablished Japan as a trading power, regulated certain industries to ensure success, made education compulsory for both boys and girls (later repealed), and funded initiatives to educate Japanese people about technology (study-abroad programs, engineering schools, industrial exhibitions). The government also invaded Taiwan, where it exploited the island’s farmland and ore (First Sino-Japanese War). ​ When: 1870 ​ Why: Perry’s expedition ○​ Perry’s goal was to secure better treatment for American castaways and encourage trade relations. Japan viewed the Americans as “barbarians.” Perry was, however, successful in building relations with Japan due to his high-powered steamships, which the Japanese could not resist. ○​ Also- defensive industrialization; didn’t want to be colonized ​ How: Industrialization occurred mostly through learning from Western books. The government was also a big supporter of industrialization (“rich country, strong military”). Westernism, which had previously been thought to be barbarism, was embraced through art, dress, architecture, and more. ​ Impacts: ○​ Japan, although it had been relatively successful in isolation, only emerged as a global power after industrialization. ○​ Elements of Western culture saturated Japanese life, so much so that elite status became dependent on Westernization— clothes, music, even the usage of sewing machines. The emperor became a symbol of modernization. Western inventions like the train and telegraph wire allowed Japan to become more interconnected. ​ Emperor always wearing W military dress ⇒ Meiji JP focusing on military power/expansion rather than just settling for being superior ○​ JP escaped western domination/colonization by (ironically) Westernizing itself to become a global industrial power, eventually turning to imperialism just like the Western powers. Impacts ​ Deindustrialization ○​ Who: handicraft artisans/craftsmen (the old working class) worldwide ○​ What: disappearance of old handicraft industries all around the world ○​ Why: direct consequence of spreading industrialization ○​ How: artisans can't compete w/ factory system bc it creates the same products better, faster, and cheaper ○​ Impacts: artisans lose work, especially in NON-industrialized countries since there are no factories to go find employment at as a last resort. Places formerly known for production of finished goods (e.g. India) now mainly provide raw materials for industrial production, making them targets of imperialism ​ Global power ○​ Who: Europe and other industrialized countries (Britain, Germany, Russia, Japan, US) ○​ What: Industrialization caused massive economic and population growth in industrialized countries, shifting global wealth from Asia (China and India) to countries that industrialized. This gave them increased military/political strength, wealth, and control of the supply on global markets ○​ When: 1760-1840 ○​ Why: Industrialization led to an increase in population and high quality, cheap, mass produced goods. This led to countries that experienced that growth to have control over global markets and thus more economic power ○​ How: Industrialization in almost every country ○​ Impacts: ​ Deindustrialization ​ Nationalism, imperialism, colonizing, etc ​ Increased global trade ​ Communism vs democracy ​ Marx says the world is gonna all be commies ​ Class system/working class ○​ Who: Working class, middle class, industrialists  ○​ What: The new middle class was easily incorporated into the industrial economy (upper middle class gained more rights including voting, public office holding, and prestigious higher education), but the working class’ standing was more uncertain. Some working-class people supported reform, but other, more radical workers supported revolution as the only way to change the oppressive system— those were the followers of Marxism (see Ideological). ○​ When: during and post-industrialization ○​ Why: bc lots of workers ⇒ working class ​ Also lots of workers ⇒ lots of products ⇒ consumers (middle class) ​ Also lots of workers ⇒ ppl in charge of them ⇒ industrialists ○​ How: Workers would use the threat of a strike to have their demands met. They would also ally with sympathetic reformers (of ruling elite class) to try to change conditions for the working class. ○​ Impacts: Abolition of child labor; better mandated working conditions; cap on workday hours; other labor reforms ​ Women ○​ Who: the females ○​ What: Women during the Industrial Revolution were expected to be both laborers and homemakers. The “True Woman” worked her shift and then came home to make her home a “haven” for her husband and to raise her children (preferably boys) well. ​ Increasing public life but also cult of domesticity ○​ When: Whenever their country underwent industrialization ○​ Why: Factories = factory work. Women started working in factories. ○​ How: They moved to cities. Urbanization!!!!!!!!!!!! ○​ Impacts: ​ Women started working in factories. Homework was not sustainable. Would often work long shifts only to come home and support their husbands/families— “True Woman” ​ They would mostly do what had previously been considered domestic work, like spinning ​ Environmental ○​ Where: industrialized countries, particularly the urban areas  ○​ What: industrialization ⇒ steam power ⇒ air/water pollution ○​ When: during and post-industrialization ○​ Why: bc no one cared about Earth, only $$ ⇒ terrible pollution ​ Also deforestation and stuff ○​ How: Coal was mined from the Earth and used in steam power! ⇒ air pollution! And factories have waste that gets dumped in rivers ⇒ water pollution! Factories were running for very long hours. ○​ Impacts: terrible pollution ⇒ terrible living conditions ⇒ declining health in industrialized cities ​ Ideological ○​ Who: Commies: Marx + Engels, Capitalists, Socialists, the PROLETARIAT vs the BOURGEOISIE!!!!! ○​ What: Karl Marx was a German philosopher who believed that the entirety of history could be defined by class struggle. He identified two current classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The proletariat was the working class, those who were oppressed by the richer bourgeoisie. He believed that the proletariat needed to revolt against the bourgeoisie, and only then would the world become egalitarian. ○​ When: post-industrialization, in response to the conflict between the working classes and the industrialists ○​ Why: bad working conditions ⇒ social conflict ⇒ reform or revolution? ○​ How: The Communist Manifesto advocated a violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie. Marx believed that workers were being exploited (being robbed of their economic power) and alienated (separated from the products of their own labor). ○​ Impacts: attempts at executing this plan went pretty terribly… Unit 2: Imperialism, Nationalism, and Resistance 1800-1930 Nationalism ​ Who: Most nations adopted nationalism at some point, but it abounded in imperialist countries (see New Imperialism) ​ What: Nationalism is defined as “identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations.” There are 2 main types of nationalism: civic (based on a shared set of political principles; examples include the US and France) and ethnic (based on a supposedly shared ethnic identity; examples include Japan and Nazi Germany) ​ Where: Most nations. However, it was often difficult for larger/more divided nations to adopt nationalism, since their populations were so disjointed. ​ When: Usually dated around the American and French Revolutions, but may have roots in medieval or even ancient times. It gained popularity during the Industrial Revolution. ​ Why: Industrialization led to urbanization, which meant that the millions of people who moved to cities felt a need to belong to a community. Governments also gained significant power from nationalism, including an easier time collecting taxes and drafting into the military, larger military budgets, and reduced challenges to governing. ○​ France ​ One of the main reasons for the spread of nationalism was the French Revolution. The creation of a republic led to a sense of camaraderie among the people, and civic ideals such as liberty and equality were also a unifying force. French nationalism was civic. ○​ Germany ​ Nationalism also commonly originated in response to a common enemy: when Napoleon taxed the Confederation of the Rhine (collection of German states), Germany unified against  the taxation. German nationalism was based on a sense of ethnic superiority, which would later influence Hitler’s persecution of Jewish people. Otto von Bismarck was an important figure in the German nationalist movement. ○​ Japan ​ The Meiji government, wanting to promote national unity and patriotism, encouraged nationalism. It promoted the emperor as a central figure of the nationalist movement, and it recalled elements of the Japanese past (such as the Shinto religion). Perhaps most importantly, it fostered a sense of ethnic nationalism based on Japan’s alleged descent from the Yayoi people (Yamoto race theory) and superiority to the nations around it (from other Asian nations to Western nations). ○​ Other empires ​ Empires like the Russian, Habsburg, and Ottoman empires were more multi-ethnic and diverse than their neighboring nations. This made it difficult to promote a sense of unity since various groups within the population who had been disenfranchised advocated the right to be seen as separate entities. These empires also had problems with uprisings due to their attempts to force an identity that many didn’t identify with through unified religion, language, and customs. ​ How: ○​ Propaganda, including the creation of national flags, anthems, and symbols, helped get more people on board with nationalism. Countries encouraged the adoption of a national language and customs, the emphasis of military strength and values, and the glorification of a nation’s past, which often disregarded violent pasts. ​ Impact: ○​ Nationalism was important for the unity of many nations. It allowed for increased patriotism, cooperation between citizens, and support of the government. It was also in nations’ interest to encourage nationalism in minority groups living in multi-ethnic empires in order to weaken those empires. However, it also had many drawbacks,  including disenfranchisement of minority voters in multi-ethnic empires, extremism, racism, anti-Semitism, and, soon, Nazism. Anti-Semitism ​ Who: The Jewish diaspora was the population of Jews who spread across the world from Israel after the destruction of the Temple. An important member of the Jewish diaspora was philosopher Moses Mendelssohn. ​ What: Most Jews faced anti-Semitism in the country they moved to after leaving Israel. However, the Enlightenment in Europe in the 18th century popularized tolerance of diverse beliefs and religions; countries that adopted these ideas often eased restrictions on Jews, allowing them to become relatively free citizens with the freedom to travel and practice different professions. Moses Mendelssohn, an Enlightenment-era Jewish philosopher, advocated this Jewish emancipation, proposing the Haskalah movement, which rested upon the belief that Jews could participate in secular society but still remain Jewish at home. Though some Jews embraced this idea and often assimilated into Christian society, many Jews found it difficult to reconcile this idea of participating in modern society with their Jewish identity. Though Jewish emancipation had many benefits for Jews, it also introduced a new form of anti-Semitism that nationalism reinforced. Christians held unfounded assumptions that Jews were encroaching on their rights— stealing their jobs, conspiring, etc.— that led to a wave of anti-Semitic political parties and rhetoric. ​ Where: Dispersed across Europe, mostly in Eastern Europe (Poland, Russia, Czechoslovakia, etc.) ​ When: Jewish diaspora began in 733 BCE and continued until 1948 ​ Why: Hate against Jews was founded in biblical assumptions, stereotypes and misinformation, and pure fear. Many Christians interpreted a line in the Bible to mean that Jews murdered Jesus. There was also a belief that Jews murdered Christian children. The unfamiliar language and customs of Jews also gave rise to xenophobic hate. ​ How: Jews living in European countries were threatened, expelled, hurt or killed, and relegated to ghettos and shtetls. They were excluded from most occupations except for banking and merchant services, leading to the  stereotype of Jews as money-hungry. Christians also participated in pogroms, violent and often deadly hate crimes against Jews that the government made no effort to prevent. ​ Impact: This relentless hate against Jews eventually spurred a pro-Jewish movement called Zionism (see Zionism). Zionism ​ Who: Persecuted Jews, including activist and father of Zionism Theodor Herzl. ​ What: Confronted with never ending hate and violence against Jews, many Jews believed that they would never be able to fit into society without being persecuted. This led to Zionism, a movement which advocated for the establishment of a Jewish nation (what is now Israel). ​ Where: Began in Switzerland. ​ When: First introduced in 1897 in Herzl’s book Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State). ​ Why: Constant hate against Jews convinced Herzl that the Jews would never be safe in Europe. An important example of anti-Semitism and a turning point for many Jews was the Dreyfus Affair, when a Jewish-French army captain was falsely accused of spying and wrongly convicted. Zionism was similar in some ways to nationalism: it advocated a unified people sharing one culture and one identity. However, while nationalism is born from pride, Zionism originated from fear. ​ How: Jews immigrated to Ottoman Palestine during the First Aliyah (1882-1903). ​ Impact: Zionism had a mixed reception among Jews. While many agreed, others believed the idea was too radical or that they would rather try to assimilate into European culture. The Jews who did support Zionism often migrated to Ottoman Palestine to create the nation of Israel. The impacts of this migration, obviously, continue to be seen today in Israeli-Palestinian relations. New Imperialism ​ Who: England, France, US, Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Germany, Portugal, Japan (and more). ​ What: Imperialism is extending the power of a country through diplomatic or military force. It usually goes hand in hand with colonialism. There are two main types of colonialism: exploitation colonialism, where raw materials are extracted from the colony and indigenous people are enslaved for the benefit of the colonizer, but not many colonizers actually settle; and settler colonialism, where colonizers migrate and claim land at the expense of the indigenous population. Imperialist nations often found an opportunity created by the power gaps from industrialization (nations that hadn’t industrialized were much weaker than those that had) and colonized these vulnerable nations. The term new imperialism signifies a type of imperialism spurred by the Industrial Revolution, using steamships (to create overseas empires), machine guns and other improved weapons, and medical knowledge (including the drug quinine to cure malaria) that allowed Europeans to fight off unfamiliar diseases they had previously been hindered by. ​ Where: Africa and Asia are the ones this unit focuses on, although imperialist powers also colonized many other countries. ​ When: 1870-1914. ​ Why: Motivations for imperialism included nationalism, which made citizens more willing to support it; mission civilisatrice, or the bringing of civilization/Christianity to those who supposedly lacked it (Kipling’s “The White Man’s Burden” is an example of how this appeared in culture); the invention of steamboats, the telegraph, and improved weapons and medicine; the economic benefits of harvesting raw materials/cash crops and securing new trade markets that was spurred by industrialization (need more materials for factories) and urbanization (more mouths to feed); the spread of Social Darwinism (the belief that some people (read: white, European, wealthy, able) were inherently better than others and that the “inferior” people could not effectively govern themselves); and the desire to bring Christianity to other parts of the world (muscular Christianity: religion as a manly concept + patriotism for good measure). ​ How: Steamboats to access overseas empires. Colonizers made colonies economically dependent on them by having them produce cash crops, which forced them to rely on industrialized nations for other necessities— all the profits they turned from the crops went to buying manufactured goods from industrial countries. Many nations used local elites to rule their colonies indirectly. Western education/mission school was a popular way of dismantling cultural identity among colonies. See individual bullet points for specific strategies used in each country/region. ○​ Interestingly, the Western ideas introduced by colonizers were part of the reason that colonies began to question British rule and rebel. ​ Impact: Destruction of indigenous cultures; local artisan industries wiped out by imported goods; exploitation of resources led to environmental decay; human rights violations (Belgium is a notorious example of this); ethnic division; rebellion. ​ Imperialism in India ○​ Who: British East India Company (EIC), British Crown ○​ What: Between 1750 and 1818, the EIC conquered most of India through military victories. At that time, India was ruled by the Mughal Empire. The EIC allowed the Mughal emperor (Bahadur Shah Zafar) to remain nominally in charge of India, but he was nothing more than a figurehead for the EIC. The EIC essentially took control of India, building infrastructure to strengthen market integration, slowly growing the Indian economy, and flooding the markets with imported goods that put Indian artisans out of business. The EIC also imposed excessive taxes on India (which it redirected to the EIC itself) and forced Christianity upon much of its population. India was an exploitation colony. ○​ Where: India. ○​ When: 1750-1947. ○​ Why: The British were interested in expanding trade and making more money, and India, which had plenty of raw materials and was vulnerable since it didn’t industrialize, seemed like someplace that would not be able to resist British imperialism. ○​ How: The EIC ruled through empowering local elites (giving them financial incentives to support British rule). It also exploited the  previous division between religions and ethnic groups in India to keep the country from uniting to resist British rule. It created an army of sepoys to enforce British rule. It also maintained control of India through the doctrine of lapse, which dictated that any land without a biological heir would fall to the British. ○​ Impact: The Indian Rebellion of 1857 had many root causes, including the exorbitant taxation of Indians, the constant annexation of land by the EIC, and the forceful pushing of Christianity. Its immediate cause, however, was the execution of Indian sepoys for refusing to use a new and improved model of gun (on religious grounds; the gun was rumored to contain animal fat). Its goals were the overthrowing of the EIC and (for Muslims) the reinstitution of the Mughal Empire. However, the rebellion failed because while Muslims and Hindus supported it, other Indians of minority religions stayed loyal to the EIC. The rebellion changed British rule in India significantly. India became a subject of the British Crown/British Raj rather than being owned by the EIC; the remnants of the Mughal empire were defeated entirely; the government became more bureaucratic; new innovations and infrastructure, like telegraph and public health systems, were implemented. Ultimately, British colonialism in India left behind a legacy of poverty, violence, and oppression that continues to this day. ​ Imperialism in Algeria ○​ Who: France ○​ What: France ruled Algeria since its successful invasion in 1830. As a settler colony, it exercised direct rule over the country. ○​ Where: Algeria ○​ When: 1830-1903 ○​ Why: In the first part of the 19th century, France was in debt to Algeria, which was supplying it with raw materials. A French diplomat visited Algeria to negotiate for more time to pay the debt, and the Algerian ruler attacked the diplomat. France then invaded Algiers and, despite much resistance, expanded its power into Africa. The invasion was also meant to strengthen the popularity of the king and to deter the Barbary pirates who were taking Christian captives.  ○​ How: Warfare; shifting Algerian wealth to the colons (French settlers) living in the area. ○​ Impact: Ruin of artisans; unemployment among Algerians; breakdown of Algerian national identity as French education overpowered it. ​ Scramble for Africa ○​ Who: European powers - Portugal, France, Britain, Germany, Belgium, and Spain (Otto the icon organizes this) ○​ What: European countries rush to colonize Africa, haphazardly dividing it into colonies with no regard for the homes of the people who already lived there. African colonialism was essentially a settler colony. ○​ Where: Partition of Africa - officially split up with the Berlin Conference in 1884. ○​ When: 1884-1914 ○​ Why: Imperialism! Search for raw materials and advance their empires. The goal was to make money from mining or commercial agriculture (cash crops) in an extractive economic approach. New technological advancements allowed for this expansion: improved medicine (quinine), guns, steamboats. Rinderpest (cattle disease that struck Africa around the same time as imperialist powers arrived) weakened African society as well because people lost their main source of food and big source of income (rip those cattle). ○​ How: European supplied and funded armies made up of African soldiers (African soldiers were forced to work for Europeans because they lost income/work after rinderpest and general poverty). They also seized power by making African leaders sign unequal treaties that the leaders could not read, forcing them without their knowledge into servitude. After establishing dominance, European powers maintained their rule through a strategy of divide and rule (assigning people tribal identities and stoking the tension) and indirect rule (power through local elites). Instead of settling in the colonies (vis a vis settler colonialism), the European powers’ economic approach was extractive: harsh labor conditions.  ○​ Impact: Compared to other colonial empires, European powers invested very little in their African colonies. This stunted short- and long-term economic growth in ways that can still be seen today. Colonialism also impacted African religion by spreading Christianity and establishing mission schools. Africans later adapted Christianity by creating a branch of churches (independent churches) with a spiritual focus. Also led to resistance, such as the Yaa Asantewaa War, which was a direct rebellion using weapons and force in the colony consisting of modern-day Ghana that ultimately failed. ​ Imperialism in China ○​ Who: Britain, Hong Xiuquan (Taiping Rebellion), Sun Yat-sen (leader of the Chinese Nationalist Party/Guomindang), Lin Zexu (anti-British philosopher) ○​ What: In the 19th century, China was ruled by the Qing dynasty, a previously powerful regime that had become unstable. The Qing dynasty had recently introduced the Self-Strengthening Movement, a shift toward Western technology that aimed to consolidate Qing power but ultimately failed. A deciding factor in the collapse of the Qing dynasty was the 1850-64 Taiping Rebellion, in which a man named Hong Xiuquan claimed he was the son of God and advocated communist ideals that appealed to Chinese peasants (Taiping Christianity). Though the rebellion did not succeed, it weakened the Qing dynasty so much that it was never able to effectively rule the country again. The First Opium War that had occurred before the Taiping Rebellion (see How) had also succeeded in weakening the Qing dynasty, and the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) and the Boxer Rebellion (1900), in which a Chinese anti-foreign group called the Righteous and Harmonious Fists rebelled against foreign and Christian influence only to be defeated by an alliance of imperialist powers, resulted in China granting large concessions to other countries. Sun Yat-sen, a Western-educated visionary, also contributed to anti-Qing sentiment and touted his three principles of nationalism, democracy, and people’s wellbeing. Eventually, the Qing dynasty fell and China became a republic (ruled first by Yuan Shikai) in 1911. ○​ Where: China  ○​ When: 1830s-1911 ○​ Why: China had not industrialized and was vulnerable to British imperialism. ○​ How: Economic imperialism was a method of imperialism through economic means. China didn’t want to trade with the British unless the British could provide silver, of which they didn’t have enough. In response, the British took control of China by illegally importing opium; many Chinese became addicted and dependent on British imports of the drug. The Chinese government tried to block opium imports, but it was defeated in the First Opium War (1839-1842) and signed an unequal treaty (Treaty of Nanjing) that ceded Hong Kong to Britain. The French joined the British in the Second Opium War, where Europe once again won and forced China to legalize opium imports. ○​ Impact: China lost a large portion of its global status and influence among other countries during the fall of the Qing dynasty. After the Boxer Rebellion, many Chinese were forced to assimilate into Western culture. China became a constitutional republic based on Sun Yat-sen’s Three Principles U3 Terms List Unit 3: World War I (1870-1918) Causes + Tactics of WWI ​ Who: The immediate cause was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne) in Sarajevo by Serbian nationalist and member of the Black Hand Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914. The main countries involved were Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, Japan, Britain, France, and Russia (which withdrew in 1917). ​ What: After the assassination, Austria-Hungary offered an ultimatum to Serbia. Serbia found the demands too harsh and rejected the ultimatum,  leading Austria-Hungary to declare war. At this point in time, the great powers were divided into 2 alliances: the Triple Entente/Allied powers and the Triple Alliance/Central powers. The Triple Entente comprised Russia, France, Japan, and Britain (and eventually Italy), while the Triple Alliance was Germany, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary. Since Russia was allied with Serbia due to shared ethnicity/culture, the war became a conflict between these two alliances. ​ Where: Most of the war occurred in Europe, but some campaigns took place in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific ​ When: Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28, 1914 and Germany on August 1, 1914 ​ Why: There were 4 main underlying causes of WWI: ○​ Militarism. Due to rapid industrialization, states were able to make more, more effective, and deadlier weapons than ever before. ○​ Alliance system. The alliances caused a domino effect where they would mobilize on behalf of their allies, using thousands of miles of railroad infrastructure. ○​ Imperialism. The desire to project power on the world stage was a motivator, especially for Germany, which wanted to enlarge its empire. ○​ Nationalism. Many believed that other nations threatened their nationalistic identity and, thus, were willing to go to war to protect their perceived superiority. ​ How: WWI was the world’s first total war: it required the mobilization of both military and citizens. Civilians were motivated by propaganda put out by governments that glorified the country and demonized its enemies. Incredibly effective military technologies like machine guns and chemical gas made WWI one of history's deadliest wars, especially considering advances in medical care had not yet caught up with advances in weaponry. This cycle of losing men faster than they could be replaced, along with the new development of trench warfare, led to years of stalemates and made WWI a war of attrition where both sides were focused not on major victories but on wearing the other side down. WWI, though fought mainly in Europe, spread around the world through a) imperialism and b) the involvement of the US. Great powers mustered colonial troops to fight in the  war (see Post-war Diplomacy). German U-boats attacked US shipping vessels, bringing the US out of neutrality and into war on the side of the Allied powers. This marked a turning point in the war, and Germany and the Central powers surrendered and signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1918. ​ Impact: Though often seen as a “pointless” war, WWI had a huge impact on international affairs. During the war, Russia’s political landscape changed drastically (see Russia during WWI); the Central powers were left economically unstable (which led to the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, as well as the rise of Nazism in Germany); the expansion of gender roles when women were conscripted to work in munitions factories, as nurses, and, in some countries, in combat; the rise of anticolonialism; and a permanent shift in military strategy that utilized new weapons to make warfare as deadly as possible. Russia during WWI ​ Who: WWI was a time of great upheaval for the Russian Empire. Initially ruled by Tsar Nicholas II of the Romanov Dynasty, Russia underwent two major revolutions in 1917. The February Revolution replaced Nicholas II with Alexander Kerensky, leader of the Provisional Government. Later that year during the October Revolution, Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks overthrew Kerensky, establishing the government for the eventual Soviet Union. ​ What: World War I exacerbated Russia’s internal weaknesses. German offenses devastated Russian forces and led to economic strain on the homefront. Peasant demands for schools, land reform, better wages, and soviets sparked mass demonstrations, culminating in the Russian Revolution of 1917. ​ Where: Russia ​ When: Russia entered WWI in 1914. The February Revolution occurred in March 1917, followed by the Bolshevik led October Revolution in November 1917. Russia exited the war in March 1918 with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. ​ Why: While Russia still maintained the largest land empire by the end of the nineteenth century, its economy was largely agrarian and impoverished.  Russia’s humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and general demands for more schools, land, better wages, and soviets, sparked the Revolution of 1905, where worker strikes, peasant unrest, and military mutinies forced Tsar Nicholas II to enact some reform through the October Manifesto, establishing the Duma, an empire wide legislative assembly. However, from the start of WWI, Germany hammered the Russian army: production in Russia fell behind and economic prices mounted, leading to more mass demonstrations in March 1917, the February Revolution, and ultimately the abdication of the Czar. This caused a power vacuum within the Russian government, with two groups forced to share power: the Provisional Government led by Duma politicians and the Petrograd Soviet. Alexander Kerensky assumed power, but this government made two critical mistakes: 1) chose to continue fighting in WWI and 2) postponed land reforms, leading to more unrest, which manifested in the October Revolution with the Bolsheviks later that year. ​ How: The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a splinter faction of the revolution that advocated for “power to the soviets” and Marxist ideals. In the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks assumed control of Petrograd and Moscow within ten days, squeezing out other factions and even ignoring the results of the recent election which had placed another group in power. In the Russian Civil War (1918-1921), Leon Trotsky, another Bolshevik leader, led the Bolshevik/Red Army to success against opposing revolutionary forces. ​ Impact: Domestically, the Bolshevik government proved very authoritarian; while they did enact land reforms, winning the loyalty of many Rusians, they ultimately used force to suppress the very workers and peasants they were purportedly representing, governed alone with secret police, Cheka, and stripping away many civil rights. The Bolshevik government led to millions of Russians in poverty, a territorially shrunken country (result of their exit from WWI), and shrinking industrial production. Internationally, the Russian Revolution had major consequences for the Allied Powers in WWI. Lenin withdrew Russia from the war, dissolving the Eastern Front. This allowed the Central Powers to focus all their resources on the Western Front. Post-war Diplomacy ​ Treaty of Versailles ○​ Who: Georges Clémenceau (French representative), Woodrow Wilson (American representative), David Lloyd George (UK representative), Vittorio Emanuele Orlando (Italian representative). ○​ What: The Treaty of Versailles officially ended WWI. An unequal treaty, it was especially punitive toward the losing Central powers, demanding territory, reparations, and money from Germany. It also divided Germany and the Ottoman Empire into territories which they divided among themselves. ○​ Where: Palace of Versailles, Paris, France ○​ When: Signed on June 28, 1919 ○​ Why: To end WWI and punish the losing powers ○​ How: The “Big Four” (listed above) met in the Palace of Versailles to deliberate and eventually sign the treaty. No delegates from the losing powers were present at the meetings. ○​ Impact: Often cited as one of the most important causes of WWII. It crippled Germany financially, allowing Hitler to rise to power and eventually spread Nazism across the country. ​ Fourteen Points ○​ Who: Woodrow Wilson, US President during WWI ○​ What: The Fourteen Points were a set of principles written by Woodrow Wilson. They were his guidelines for a new world order. ○​ Where: ○​ When: January 1918 (before the end of WWI) ○​ Why: Wilson created them as a blueprint for lasting peace in Europe. ○​ How: The basic principles of the points included ideals of open diplomacy, self determination, and collective security (the formation of the League of Nations). ○​ Impact: While many of the principles of the Fourteen Points weren’t implemented in post-war treaties, they established ideas of self-determination, which would later inspire resistance and anticolonial efforts. ​ Ottoman Empire ○​ Turkey ​ Who: Founded by Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), a reformer ​ What: Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Turkey was partitioned between Greece, Italy, Armenians, and Kurds. However, with the Turkish War of Independence (1919 - 1924), led by Atatürk, the Turks successfully revolted to create their own, modernized and secular nation-state. ​ Where: Turkey, formerly part of Ottoman Empire ​ When: Turkish nation-state war formally established in 1923. ​ Why: Atatürk’s goal was to transform Turkey into a modern, secular nation-state. The War of Independence was a response to the harsh and unfair conditions of colonial rule. ​ How: After the War of Independence, Atatürk issued a series of reforms called the Atatürk reforms (similar to Meji Reforms in Japan). He abolished the Islamic caliphate, transforming Turkey into a secular nation state; he also closed Islamic schools and courts. He pushed for reform in education and law, and gave more rights to women. ​ Impact: Turkey was the only country to successfully overthrow colonial rulers. ○​ Arabs/Zionists ​ Who: Arabs, Jewish Zionists, Britain ​ What: During WWI, Britain promised the Arabs living in the Ottoman Empire that it would help them found their own nation if they rebelled against the Ottomans. This led to the Arab Revolt of 1916, which successfully expelled Ottoman military presence from areas in the Middle East. However, Britain had also issued the Balfour Declaration promising Zionists that it would help create a Jewish state. When the war ended, Britain kept neither of its promises: the League of Nations deemed the Arabs “unfit to rule themselves” and divided the Middle East into European colonies, imposing the British Mandate (British rule) on Palestine. Arab nationalists met at the 1919 Syrian Congress to protest the British Mandate and League of Nations  colonialism, oppose the creation of a Jewish state, and reject the partition of Syria. To the Arab nationalists’ dismay, the state of Israel was created in 1948. ​ Where: Middle East ​ When: 1914-1948 ​ Why: Britain promised both Arabs and Zionists that it would protect their interests but, as is typical of Britain, followed through on neither of its promises. ​ How: Various secret agreements with Allied powers (including the Sykes-Picot Agreement to partition Syria between Britain and France) ​ Impact: Both Arabs and Zionists felt betrayed by Britain. The creation of Israel in 1948 led to resistance among Arabs, a decades-long conflict that we see playing out now. Anticolonialism ​ India ○​ Who: Mahatma Gandhi ○​ What: Earlier Indian unrest led to more restrictive British rule. In the 1880s, elite educated Hindus formed the Indian National Congress and in 1906, educated Muslims formed the All-India Muslim League, both with the intention to lobby for a larger Indian role in government. During the War, Indians, similarly to Chinese and Africans, enlisted with the hope that Britain would reward them with the right to self-determination and more freedom following the war. However, following World War I, British authorities failed to extend self-rule to India, instead extending wartime powers that curtailed Indian free speech and assembly. This sparked mass demonstrations and unrest, culminating in the Amritsar massacre, where British troops killed 400 demonstrators and wounded 1,000. The Amritsar Massacre proved to Indians that Britain would never truly give them self-determination. Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a leader for Indian nationalists. He believed that the best way to achieve independence  from Britain was through nonviolence. His method, called satyagraha, emphasized civil disobedience. ○​ Where: India ○​ When: 1919 - 1930 ○​ Why: Britain continued to repress India following World War I. The Amritsar Massacre proved to Indians that Britain would never recognize their right to self rule. ○​ How: Gandhi organized the salt march of 1930 to protest Britain’s repressive salt tax. He organized a 24 day long nonviolent march to the Arabian sea coast. After British authorities arrested poor, nonviolent people on the march, this greatly undermined their legitimacy worldwide and successfully exposed the violence of the British colonial system. ○​ Impact: Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolence was very successful in exposing the hypocrisy of British rule, eventually leading to India’s independence. His ideas of civil disobedience greatly influenced other protests movements/leaders such as MLK etc; ​ China ○​ Who: China ○​ What: In WWI, Chinese troops participated as Allied powers. Like most colonies whose people had fought in WWI, China expected to be given more self-determination after the Allies won the war. It was shocked when, despite its sacrifices and many deaths in the war, the Treaty of Versailles transferred Germany’s Chinese territories to Japan rather than returning them to Chinese sovereignty. This betrayal sparked a surge of anti-colonialism, especially among young Chinese intellectuals. On May 4, 1919, over 3,000 Beijing college students held a demonstration protesting the Treaty of Versailles. The protest, known as the May Fourth Movement, lasted months through boycotts, strikes, and violence; eventually, the Chinese government refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles. The May Fourth Movement went hand in hand with the New Culture Movement, which favored mass political participation and women’s liberation. ○​ Where: China ○​ When: 1919-1949  ○​ Why: The Treaty of Versailles didn’t recognize China’s sacrifice in WWI. Furthermore, during WWI, the government of Yuan Shikai (China’s emperor from 1915 to 1916) acquiesced to Japan’s Twenty-one Demands, a set of provisions that would give Japan significant power in China. This display of weakness pit many young Chinese against the country’s government. ○​ How: Demonstrations, assaults on government officials, strikes and boycotts against Japanese goods. ○​ Impact: The May Fourth Movement raised awareness of inequalities under colonial rule and encouraged Chinese nationalism. It also set the stage for communism, an ideology that China would soon adopt. ​ Pan-Africa ○​ Who: W.E.B. DuBois, Marcus Garvey, Léopold Senghor ○​ What: Soldiers from colonies in Africa and the Caribbean fought on the most dangerous fronts during WWI. They were rewarded with no recompensation, much less the right to self-determination. W.E.B. DuBois, an African American sociologist and activist, is said to be the father of Pan-Africanism, which is a movement that calls for the unified identity and solidarity of people of African descent across the world. The movement was borne from overwhelming sentiments of anti-colonialism and disillusionment; it relied largely upon Western-educated elites, unlike other anticolonial movements, which were more populist in nature. ○​ Where: Across the world ○​ When: 1919-present ○​ Why: Like in China and India, Britain failed to give Africa the compensation it deserved for its sacrifices in the war. Pan-Africanism also stemmed from centuries of racism, colonization, and oppression against the African diaspora. ○​ How: DuBois wrote, "The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color-line—the relation of the darker to the lighter races of men in Asia and Africa, in America and the islands of the sea." He believed that the inevitable culmination of centuries of racism and oppression was a movement for decolonization and the abolition of the color line. Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican activist, had a  different response to racism. He advocated that members of the African diaspora should move back to Africa and educate the “uncivilized” native tribes. Léopold Senghor, a Senegalese politician and president, believed in Négritude, a movement aimed at cultivating Black consciousness around the world. Négritude emphasized the accomplishments of Black people and solidarity among the diaspora. ○​ Impact: Creation of the African National Congress, founded in South Africa by western-educated lawyers and journalists that advocated equal rights for colonies in Africa and opposed imperial racial policies like apartheid. Pan-Africanism greatly influenced international politics and the decolonization movements of the mid- and late-twentieth century. Suffragism ​ Who: Women ​ What: Before WWI, the women’s suffrage movement had stalled significantly. Though women had been advocating for decades, using the arguments that denying women the right to vote was unjust, that women’s influence in the government would reduce corruption and war, and even that giving women suffrage would restrict the voting rights of other “undesirable” groups. Though they had not had much success in countries other than New Zealand, Australia, Finland and Norway and states other than Utah and Wyoming, WWI changed everything for women’s suffrage. Women were instrumental to the war effort in WWI. They worked in munitions factories, worked as nurses, and worked as volunteers overseas. This led to a shift in the public perception of women, as they proved that they were trained professionals who could be trusted to keep the country going. Their patriotism and sacrifices won them the right to vote, and in some countries, the post-war collapse of government institutions offered a new stage for suffragism. However, it’s important to note that there were restrictions on voting in many countries, including one against Black women in the US. ​ Where: Across the world ​ When: 1919-  ​ Why: Women “proved their worth” by serving patriotically in the war. ​ How: Legislation like the 19th Amendment in the US was passed to legalize voting for women. ​ Impact: Women in government are more likely to work across the aisle, advocate for equality, and foster stable governments. In the US, women of voting age are also more likely to be politically active. Unit 4: Ideological Responses to WWI (1922-1939) ​ What is fascism? ○​ Who: Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler ○​ What: Fascism is defined as a totalitarian, far-right government ruled by a single, all-powerful leader. Though fascism presents differently in different countries, there are generally 10 tactics and 5 steps that can be used to identify fascism. ​ 10 Tactics 1.​ Mythic past a.​ Fascists promote a mythic past— often connected to the supposed purity of a race— to make people dissatisfied with the present. The idea of the mythic past and its pure race connects to the common fascist tactic of ultranationalism, the belief that a country is supreme to all others. 2.​ Propaganda a.​ Fascists use the media to promote lies, unreality, and the othering of a certain group. This creates a common enemy for people in a fascist state to unite against. 3.​ Anti-intellectualism a.​ Fascists attack educational institutions because they feel threatened by the knowledge they provide and how it might counter fascist ideas. 4.​ Unreality  a.​ Fascists decide what is true and what is false. They rewrite reality to fit their needs, spreading conspiracy theories and lies until their subjects lose the ability to recognize the truth. 5.​ Hierarchy a.​ Fascists create a hierarchy of human worth. They claim that humans are intrinsically unequal and that hierarchy is the only natural form of society. The hierarchy functions in favor of fascists by silencing the voices of those at the bottom of the hierarchy (minorities, women, leftists) and by influencing those near the top to support fascism to keep their place in the hierarchy. 6.​ Victimhood a.​ Due to establishing the hierarchy, any group near the bottom trying to gain equality is seen as a threat by those near the top. This creates a sense of victimization by minorities or other oppressed groups, perpetuating the cycle of oppression. 7.​ Law and order a.​ The fascist government rewrites law and order to justify attacks on those “outside” of the law/dissidents, minorities, etc. Unless they accept their subservient role in society, minorities are cast as dangerous criminals. The fascist leader, meanwhile, is by his nature within the law, allowing him to claim superiority while he disregards the law he forces on others. 8.​ Sexual anxiety a.​ A fascist hierarchy is strictly patriarchal and threatened by women in power. They believe that women’s essential functions are domestic and reproductive, and any deviation from that role threatens their absolute power. Fascists also promote paranoia about homosexuality.  9.​ Sodom and Gomorrah a.​ Sodom and Gomorrah were two biblical cities destroyed by God for their sinfulness. Fascists promote cities as centers of criminal activity and decadence; meanwhile, they extol rural workers as doing “real” work and adhering to traditional values. 10.​ Arbeit macht frei a.​ “Work shall make you free” was the slogan written on the gates of Auschwitz, one of the most notorious Nazi prison camps. Fascists claim that minorities are lazy by nature and must be put to work (hence concentration camps). Since hard work is seen as a golden virtue, disabled people have no value in a fascist society and are often persecuted. ​ 5 Stages 1.​ Emerging out of disillusionment a.​ In the aftermath of WWI, fascists capitalized on their countries’ disappointment with their leaders and the outcome of WWI. They used economic and social crises to inflame this disillusionment and rise to power promising a new, effective government. 2.​ Establishing legitimacy as a political party a.​ Fascist groups became highly powerful, and some (like Nazis) even won the vote in elections. They also used violence to coerce support. 3.​ Gaining power via right-wing partnerships a.​ Fascist groups partnered with conservatives, the European political group that valued tradition and nationalism. The two groups united over their hatred of socialists/communists, allowing fascists to gain more power. 4.​ Using power to dominate institutions  a.​ Upon rising to power, fascists overthrew their country’s political system and ruled eventually as dictators. 5.​ Implementing radical reforms a.​ Once fascists had total control of the government, they began to implement reforms that often carried out genocide and mass atrocities. ○​ Where: Germany, Italy ○​ When: 1922-1939 ○​ Why: The conditions in Italy and Germany after WWI were chaotic and hotbeds for fascism to grow. See individual sections for more information. ○​ How: See 5 Stages ○​ Impact: Fascism had a devastating impact on Europe. It facilitated the massacre and exploitation of millions of people, including racial minorities, Jews, gays, and disabled people. Many of the wounds that fascist regimes in Italy and Germany inflicted on the European people during WWII have yet to heal fully. ​ Fascism in Italy ○​ Who: Benito Mussolini ○​ What: Fascism was born in Italy during WWI. Benito Mussolini was born in 1883 to a socialist father and Catholic mother. During WWI, he served near the trenches, where an accidental explosion left shrapnel embedded in his body. The war gave him credentials for political leadership. In 1919, he founded the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (can be translated as fighting bands), a paramilitary group united by radical nationalist ideas and whose members, called the Blackshirts, were dedicated to destroying socialism, communism, and other institutions they deemed enemies, as well as crushing racial minorities and labor unions. In 1921, the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento became the National Fascist Party. It allied with business owners and conservatives who supported its cause to gain legitimacy. In 1922, 30,000 members of the party marched on Rome, threatening a coup d’etat. The king, fearing civil war, asked Mussolini  to form a government. Mussolini ruled Italy from 1922 to 1925 as Prime Minister. During this period, the Fascist party participated in (and won) elections, and Mussolini led a constitutional government. However, this government was soon abolished, and from 1925-1943, as il Duce, Italian for “the Leader,” Mussolini ruled as a fascist dictator, manipulating mass media, fearmongering about communism (an especially effective tactic after the Bolshevik Revolution), and appealing to sexism, racism, and nationalism. Free speech, elections, and oppositional parties were dissolved. ○​ Where: Italy ○​ When: 1922-1943 ○​ Why: The WWI peace settlement granted Italy less land than expected. Nationalists called this seeming betrayal a “mutilated victory” when compared with the millions of Italians sacrificed in the war. Italians blamed this on a weak government, wanting a more forceful and unified government that provided “action, not words.” Those who held this belief were approving of Mussolini and his Fasci Italiani di Combattimento. Furthermore, Italy in 1919 was in economic and political disarray due to class conflict, for which Fascists claimed to offer a solution. ○​ How: Mussolini employed tactics such as censoring the press, disseminating propaganda, and controlling radio broadcasts to maintain his absolute power. The Fascist party also ran Fascist youth movements and imposed new textbooks on schools. It created an organization against anti-fascism and a large network of government spies, instilling fear in Italians that eventually quelled opposition. ○​ Impact: Italian fascism was the first form of fascism to rise in Europe, so it provided a template for other fascists like Hitler to follow. Though it collapsed abruptly in 1945 at Mussolini’s death, Italian fascism had lasting impacts on Italy’s politics and anti-immigration rhetoric. ​ Nazism in Germany ○​ Who: Adolf Hitler ○​ What: Fascism/Nazism in Germany was the most important instance of post-WWI fascism in Europe. Adolf Hitler, a German dictator notorious for his racism, anti-Semitism, and pure cruelty, was born in 1889 and joined the army after being rejected from art school. He was outraged by the Treaty of Versailles, which required Germany to pay exorbitant reparations, disarm, lose 10% of its territory, and give up its overseas colonies. Prompted by this treaty to go into politics, he joined the National Socialist Party (Nazi Party), and by 1921, he was its leader. A lazy but charismatic politician, he convinced his followers that restoring Germany to its former glory depended on ridding the country of Jews and communists. As Germany descended into the global depression, Hitler rose as the strong leader many Germans thought could save the country. The Nazi party began doing well in elections and Hitler was offered the position of chancellor in 1933. He soon became a German dictator and used tactics similar to Mussolini to gain complete control of the country. His goals were to expand the military and country, to “purify” the German race, and to destroy Bolshevism. His popular support strengthened after he became chancellor due to his successful public works and employment campaigns, which led to economic success. He gained strong support among youth, farmers, industrial firms, and university students. He used this support to further his campaign against Jews, eventually publishing Mein Kampf (My Struggle), a book of hateful ramblings against Jews. ○​ Where: After WWI, the Weimar Republic (1918-1933) became Germany’s government. It was a weak government in economic and political turmoil after the war, and Hitler was easily able to raise resentment against Jews and communists, whom he blamed for Germany’s weakness. After 1933, the Nazis took control of Germany and expanded into other nearby countries like Czechloslovakia and Poland. ○​ When: 1933-1945 ○​ Why: The German economy and society was in a disastrous state after WWI. The economy suffered from excessive hyperinflation between 1923 and 1934, and in 1931, it was devastated by the global  depression. Hitler took advantage of the economic state to rise to power and blame Germany’s troubles on Jews and communists. He extolled the “Aryan ideal” of a German (based on erroneous interpretations of history and science) and claimed that all other races were inferior and deserved to be purged from German society. ○​ How: Look at the 10 tactics of fascism, then look at Hitler’s tactics as dictator. The Venn diagram is a circle. ○​ Impact: Hitler’s assault on democracy, his ultra-nationalism, and his absolute hatred of those he deemed “lesser” led to the atrocities Germany committed during WWII, including the Holocaust and the mass genocide it perpetuated. The horrors that the Holocaust and Hitler’s campaign of hate left on Jewish families and other victims of the Holocaust remain relevant to this day; studying Hitler’s regime is the epitome of making sure “history doesn’t repeat itself.” ​ Communism in the USSR ○​ Who: Vladimir Lenin then Josef Stalin ○​ What: Communism and fascism, though enemies, had similar features. Both had a militant and hierarchical organization, a cult of the leader, a penchant for violence, and a focus on youth and the future. Furthermore, both shared the belief that the world would be better off without certain classes or races. Communists, however, advocated equality of the sexes and reviled capitalism, while fascists believed in women’s subordination and lived in harmony with capitalism. Fascists extolled the military and coexisted with religion, while communists extolled class struggle and hated organized religion. When Vladimir Lenin died in 1924, Josef Stalin took the lead of the USSR. Stalin was not a charismatic person, but he was gifted with administrative and organization skills and had a deep loyalty to communism. He consolidated power in the years 1927-1928 and transformed the USSR into a more industrialized country. His “socialism in one country” policy disregarded revolutions abroad in favor of focusing on the USSR. Stalin tried to boost the USSR’s economy through a series of radical Five-Year Plans: In 1929, he spearheaded the collectivization of agriculture, consolidating private  land into huge state-owned farms. Collectivization was a failure that resulted in the deaths from famine of millions of peasants and a reduced economic output. Another part of the first Five-Year Plan was overhauling the USSR’s industrial economy; he poured resources into forced industrialization and building up the USSR’s armament industry. By the late 1930s, the USSR was the world’s third largest industrial economy. Though the Five Year Plans’ forced industrialization was successful in this aspect, it was inefficient and wasted many resources poured into projects that were never completed. Stalin also instituted state schools for all children, allowing peasants to move up in social class and creating a “proletarian intelligentsia” that supported him. ○​ Where: The USSR, a country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922-1991. It was established in 1922 following the Russian Civil War after the October Revolution. ○​ When: 1922-1953 ○​ Why: After the Russian Revolution of 1917-1923, many Russians were attracted to the idea of a classless, equal society. Though Lenin and Stalin promised to make that happen, they ultimately failed to do so. ○​ How: Both Stalin and Lenin ruled through terror. Stalin punished peasants who opposed collectivization by ordering that kulaks (prosperous peasants) be killed or sent to gulags in Siberia. Famines due to harsh requisition of grain by the government led to the deaths of 5-7 million peasants, especially in Ukraine and Kazakhstan. Stalin had a secret police force called the NKVD that arrested and killed millions. He manipulated the press and released propaganda to hide the famine. He killed or deported anyone whom he suspected of resisting his rule. His policies killed about 8% of the population of the USSR between 1928 and 1941. ○​ Impact: Communism in the 1920s and ‘30s killed a huge amount of people and imprisoned even more in the gulags. Despite this, communism in the USSR lasted until 1991, when the USSR disintegrated. ​ Authoritarianism in Japan ○​ Who: Emperor Hirohito (ruled 1926-1989) ○​ What: After the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Japan became a constitutional monarchy. However, this form of government was weak due to the fact that most Japanese males did not have suffrage. During the 1920s, it seemed to be moving more towards Western democracy: universal male suffrage was achieved, and a two-party system emerged. Gender equality and education expanded, and Japanese culture became more cosmopolitan. However, this created a platform for people to voice issues such as workers’ rights and feminism, threatening Japanese elites. After the depression, many began to doubt the effectiveness of Japan’s government, and a growing movement called the Revolutionary Right emerged. The Revolutionary Right was a collection of small groups that advocated nationalism, authoritarianism, foreign expansion, and leadership by an exalted emperor. It had many hallmarks of right-wing nationalism, from excessive militarism to censorship to perceived Japanese superiority over all other countries (especially Western countries). However, this movement cannot be described as fascist. It had neither a charismatic leader nor the genocide of those who disapproved, and its government and values were strong enough to prevent a fascist coup d’etat. It did, however, gain extreme imperial ambitions. ○​ Where: Japan ○​ When: 1929-1945 ○​ Why: The Great Depression hit Japan hard, and its exports fell by half between 1929 and 1931. Unemployment boomed, and food was scarce. Many people believed that the solution was the overthrow of the current government, which they saw as ineffective. ○​ How: Though there were instances of censorship and the decline of parliament, the censorship was less severe than that of Italy and Germany, the parliament still had some voice in the government, political prisoners were few, and the Japanese did not direct racism toward an internal minority but instead an external force. ○​ Impact: Japan’s imperialist ambitions conflicted with those of the US and Britain, helping to launch WWII.