AR222 Midterm Study PDF

Tab 11 Quizlet: https://quizlet.com/ca/817121355/ar226-midterm-study-flash- cards/?i=444vit&x=1jqt Midterm Format: Lecture 1 AR222 Midterm Study Lecture 1: An Introduction to Roman History Course Scope & Approach The course covers Rome and its territory from the early 1st millennium BCE...

Tab 11 Quizlet: https://quizlet.com/ca/817121355/ar226-midterm-study-flash- cards/?i=444vit&x=1jqt Midterm Format: Lecture 1 AR222 Midterm Study Lecture 1: An Introduction to Roman History Course Scope & Approach The course covers Rome and its territory from the early 1st millennium BCE to the mid-2nd millennium CE. Emphasis is on critical thinking about chronology and geography in Roman history. Defining Roman History Traditional date range: 753 BCE – 476 CE. The course adopts a broader and more comprehensive chronological approach. Sources of Roman History 1. Texts (Primary Sources) ○ Written in Greek and Latin. ○ Various genres, providing insight into Roman society, politics, and culture. ○ Annalistic history: A chronological, year-by-year record. ○ Example: Cicero describes how high priests recorded annual events (Annales Maximi). 2. Inscriptions ○ Found on stone and other media. ○ Useful for religious, political, and historical contexts. 3. Paleographic Texts ○ Handwritten documents revealing legal, social, and daily life aspects. 4. Numismatics (Coinage) ○ Provides economic, political, and religious insights. 5. Iconography (Visual Representations) ○ Shows Roman beliefs, military practices, and architecture. ○ Allows us to view history from the perspective of Romans themselves. 6. Archaeology ○ Excavations and field surveys fill in gaps where historical records are lacking. Historical Perspective: Understanding Roman History The course does not just focus on dates, battles, and rulers. More important is understanding the social, economic, and political transformations of Rome. Rome’s expansion and empire-building were not inevitable—the goal is to analyze the factors behind its rise and struggles. Lecture 2 Lecture 2: Italy in the Early 1st Millennium BCE Chronological Overview of Early Italy 1500-1400 BCE – Middle Bronze Age (Apennine Culture) 1400-1200 BCE – Late Bronze Age (Sub-Apennine Culture) 1200-1000 BCE – Final Bronze Age (Proto-Villanovan Culture) 1000-770 BCE – Iron Age (Villanovan Culture) 770-720 BCE – Late Iron Age (Late Villanovan Culture) 720-580 BCE – Orientalizing Period 580-480 BCE – Archaic Period Apennine Culture (c. 1500 BCE - 1000 BCE) An Indo-European group settled in Italy around 1500 BCE. Developed permanent settlements with agriculture and pastoralism. The earliest finds in Rome are linked to this culture. "Germanic Chiefdoms" model: ○ Landholding inequalities emerged. ○ Development of patron-client relationships. ○ Wealth concentrated in the hands of elites due to luxury trade. Terramare Culture (c. 1500 BCE - 1200 BCE) Originated in north-central Italy (possibly from Hungary). High-quality metalwork and timber construction. Cultural Influences in Early Italy Sardinia (Nuraghi architecture) – Unique stone tower structures. Mycenaean Influence (Greece) – Artifacts found in Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia. ○ They sought obsidian, metals, and raw materials. Villanovan Culture (c. 1000-770 BCE, Early Iron Age) First identified near Bologna. Known for cremation burials: ○ Ashes placed in biconical urns or hut urns (which reflect their architecture). Expert metalworkers and potters. Period marked by: ○ Population increase. ○ More concentrated settlements. ○ Emerging social hierarchies. Etruscans (c. 8th - 3rd Century BCE)  Etruscan Confederacy – About 12 city-states between Arno and Tiber Rivers. Burial practices provide insight into Etruscan society. Etruscan Language & Writing ○ Thousands of texts exist, but language is not related to any modern or ancient languages. ○ Etruscan alphabet was adapted from Greek and later influenced Latin script. Etruscan Influence on Rome Greek Cultural Influence came to Rome through the Etruscans. Greek vases and artifacts found in Etruscan burials. Etruscan Art shaped early Roman styles. Etruscan Temples became models for later Roman temples: ○ Deep porches leading to a single or triple chamber. ○ Columns used only in porches, not around the whole structure. ○ Built on high podiums. Conclusion Understanding early Italian cultures is essential to analyzing Rome’s origins. These influences will become more apparent as the course covers Rome’s founding and early history. Lecture 3 Lecture 3: Defining the Earliest History of Rome Geography & Early Settlement of Rome Rome was settled due to its defensible location (7 hills) and access to: ○ Fresh water ○ Agricultural land ○ The Tiber River, which was navigable but slowed near Rome, making it a good crossing point. Challenges in Studying Early Rome The modern city of Rome makes it difficult to investigate the earliest archaeological layers. Some important sites include: ○ Largo Argentina (2nd century BCE remains). ○ Sant’Omobono Sanctuary, which provides evidence for Bronze Age activity in Rome. Bronze Age Rome (c. 1300–1000 BCE) Earliest evidence of occupation in Rome dates back to the 13th–12th centuries BCE. By 1000 BCE, there were two separate settlements, identified by: ○ Different burial practices: cremation vs. inhumation. Early Iron Age Rome (c. 1000–770 BCE) Excavations have found 8th-century BCE hut cuttings, suggesting early dwelling structures. Foundation Myths of Rome Legend of Aeneas Romans traced their origins to Aeneas, a Trojan hero who fled Troy after its destruction (~1200 BCE). He founded Lavinium, while his son Ascanius later established Alba Longa. His descendants played a role in founding Rome. Romulus and Remus (753 BCE)  Several generations later, Rhea Silvia, a Vestal Virgin of Alba Longa, was raped by Mars and gave birth to twins, Romulus and Remus. The twins were abandoned but rescued by a she-wolf (or a woman nicknamed "she- wolf" due to her work as a prostitute). They later founded Rome in 753 BCE, but Romulus killed Remus over a dispute on leadership. Livy’s Account (1st Century BCE) Livy 1.4 describes how Faustulus, a shepherd, found the twins being nursed by a she- wolf and raised them. Divergences Between History & Myth The archaeological record suggests Rome was occupied 500 years before its legendary founding. Rome’s foundation myths became more elaborate as Romans had greater contact with Greek culture. Archaeological Evidence for Rome’s Early History Early Unification of Rome (8th Century BCE) Italian scholar Andrea Carandini theorized that two settlements merged in the 8th century BCE. The Palatine Hill was fortified with a ditch and walls, possibly supporting the "Wall of Romulus" theory. Strabo (1st century BCE) wrote that Rome’s early inhabitants walled the Capitoline, Palatine, and Quirinal hills. The Regal Period (753–509 BCE): The Seven Kings of Rome 1. Romulus (753–716 BCE) 2. Numa Pompilius (717–653 BCE) 3. Tullus Hostilius (653–641 BCE) 4. Ancus Marcius (641–617 BCE) 5. Tarquinius Priscus (617–578 BCE) 6. Servius Tullius (578–535 BCE)  7. Tarquinius Superbus (535–509 BCE) Evidence for Rome’s Early Kingship Lapis Niger (c. 580 BCE): An inscribed pillar with archaic Latin that contains the word recei (king). Regia (7th Century BCE): A large complex that housed Rome’s king. Forum Burials provide further evidence of early Rome’s development. 6th Century BCE: Monumental Growth in Rome Large-scale construction projects reflect Rome's growing power, including: 1. Palatine Houses – Large private residences appeared. 2. Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus – Rome’s primary deity and temple on Capitoline Hill. 3. Sanctuary of Sant’Omobono – A major religious site. 4. Cloaca Maxima – One of the largest sewers in the ancient world, helping to drain the Forum. Key Takeaways Rome’s geographical position made it an ideal settlement. Foundation myths (Aeneas, Romulus & Remus) blend legend with political and cultural narratives. Archaeological evidence suggests Rome was occupied long before 753 BCE, but organized urban development began around the 8th century BCE. The Regal Period (753–509 BCE) saw Rome’s first kings and early monumental architecture, setting the stage for the Republic. Lecture 4 Lecture 4: Conflicts and Early Expansion The End of the Kings & the Transition to the Republic (509 BCE) Rome’s last king, Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud), was overthrown. The trigger: His son Sextus Tarquinius raped Lucretia, a noblewoman. She committed suicide, prompting Lucius Junius Brutus to lead a revolt (Livy 1.57-60). Brutus swore an oath to never allow kings to rule Rome again. Tarquinius tried to reclaim Rome with the help of the Etruscans (Veii & Tarquinia, later Clusium), but failed. The Early Roman Republic (509 BCE - 450 BCE) Key Political Changes 1. Rome became a Republic: ○ Two consuls replaced the king. ○ Elected by citizens for one-year terms. ○ Held imperium (military power) and carried fasces (symbol of authority: axe + rods). 2. Struggle Between Patricians & Plebeians: ○ Patricians controlled political and religious offices. ○ Plebeians struggled for rights, leading to conflicts over land, debt, and food shortages. 3. Plebeian Secessions (494 BCE & Later): ○ Plebeians protested by leaving Rome and forming their own assembly. ○ Tribunes of the Plebs (490 BCE) were created to protect plebeian interests. ○ Plebeians gained the power to veto laws. 4. The Twelve Tables (451 BCE): ○ Rome’s first written laws, codified by a board of 10 men. ○ Key laws: VII.8 – Anyone who insults another in public shall be beaten with a rod until death. XI.1 – Patricians and plebeians cannot intermarry. Military Conflicts of the Early Republic Wars with the Volsci & Aequi (5th Century BCE)  458 BCE: The Aequi attacked Latium. Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus was appointed dictator, defeated the Aequi in 15 days, and stepped down (Livy 3.26-29). Dictatorship was a temporary office (6-month term) used during emergencies. The Conquest of Veii (405-396 BCE) Veii was a major Etruscan city north of Rome. Rome besieged Veii for 10 years. Key developments: ○ Rome introduced a war tax to fund year-round campaigns. ○ Soldiers began receiving pay for their service (Livy 4.59). ○ Rome adopted evocatio, a practice of summoning enemy gods to side with Rome. Significance of Veii’s Fall: ○ First major conquest outside Latium. ○ Weakened Etruscan League, as no other cities aided Veii. ○ Set precedents for integrating conquered peoples and religions. Key Takeaways Rome’s monarchy ended violently with Tarquin’s overthrow in 509 BCE. The Republic saw political power struggles between patricians and plebeians. Military expansion began with wars against the Aequi and Volsci and culminated in the conquest of Veii. Rome introduced military pay, war taxes, and religious integration—policies that would support later conquests. Lecture 5 Lecture 5: The Second Founding of Rome and Aftermath Post-Veii Rome & the Sack of Rome (c. 390 BCE) The fall of Veii (396 BCE) marked Rome as a dominant power in northern Italy. The Servian Wall, originally attributed to Servius Tullius, was likely built after 378 BCE, using stone from Veii (Livy 6.32). The Sack of Rome by the Gauls (c. 390 BCE) Transalpine Gauls invaded Italy and attacked Clusium, prompting Rome to intervene. Battle of the Allia River (c. 390 BCE): ○ Rome suffered a catastrophic defeat. ○ The Gauls captured Rome, but could not breach the Capitoline Hill, where Romans took refuge. Camillus and Roman Victory: ○ Marcus Furius Camillus, the general who captured Veii, led the Roman counterattack. ○ Romans agreed to pay ransom, but a fight broke out, leading to the extermination of the Gauls. A "Second Founding" of Rome? The destruction of the city led some Romans to consider abandoning Rome for Veii (Livy 5.50). Camillus argued to stay, leading to Rome’s reconstruction (Livy 5.51-54). Livy 5.55: Rebuilding was haphazard, causing poor urban planning. The Samnite Wars (343-290 BCE) Rome vs. Samnites, who controlled central Italy. Three major wars: 1. First Samnite War (343-341 BCE) – Rome gained control over Campania. 2. Second Samnite War (326-304 BCE) – Rome suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Caudine Forks (321 BCE). 3. Third Samnite War (298-290 BCE) – Rome defeated the Samnites, integrating them into their system. The Latin Revolt (340-338 BCE) Latin cities rebelled against Rome, claiming they were treated as subjects. Rome’s response: ○ No harsh punishment, but Rome established a hierarchical system: Municipia – Autonomous cities with full Roman citizenship. Allied States – No citizenship, but had military obligations. States without Suffrage – Not citizens, but still had to support Rome. War with Pyrrhus (280-275 BCE) Greek city of Taras (Tarentum) feared Roman expansion and called on King Pyrrhus of Epirus. Pyrrhus' invasion (280 BCE): ○ Arrived with 25,000 troops and 20 war elephants. ○ Defeated Rome at Heraclea (280 BCE) and Asculum (279 BCE), but suffered heavy casualties. ○ "Pyrrhic victory" – Pyrrhus reportedly said, "Another victory like this and I'm finished" (Plutarch, Pyrrhus 21.9). Rome’s Final Victory (275 BCE): Pyrrhus withdrew, and Rome captured Taras, controlling southern Italy. Key Takeaways The Sack of Rome (390 BCE) nearly destroyed the city, but led to military and urban restructuring. Rome’s expansion continued through the Samnite Wars and the Latin Revolt. Pyrrhus’ invasion marked Rome’s first major conflict with the Greek world, leading to control over all of Italy by the mid-3rd century BCE. Lecture 6 Lecture 6: Expansion Beyond Peninsular Italy Roman Expansion After Pyrrhus (276 BCE) Rome controlled most of peninsular Italy but allowed local autonomy through citizenship and treaties. No local power remained to challenge Rome. Rome demanded military service but did not impose monetary or agricultural tribute. Rome vs. Carthage: The Punic Wars Carthage: A Powerful Rival Carthage was the dominant naval and economic power in the western Mediterranean. Relied on navy and mercenary armies. Rome and Carthage had signed treaties in 509 BCE, mid-4th century BCE, and c. 280 BCE (Polybius 3.22-25). The First Punic War (264-241 BCE) Conflict over Messana (Sicily) between Rome and Carthage. Carthage had naval superiority, while Rome had superior infantry. Rome built a navy using Carthaginian ship models. Development of the "corvus" (boarding device) allowed Rome to fight naval battles like land battles. 256 BCE: Rome attempted to invade North Africa, but failed. 241 BCE: Rome won, forcing Carthage to abandon Sicily and pay a large indemnity. Sicily became Rome’s first province, with a tribute-based administration. Carthage’s Decline & Roman Expansion Carthage struggled financially, leading to a mercenary revolt (241-237 BCE). Rome took advantage, seizing Sardinia and Corsica.  Carthage rebuilt power in Spain, founding New Carthage (Cartagena). The Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) – Rome vs. Hannibal Causes Rome and Carthage had agreed not to cross the Ebro River. 219 BCE: Carthage attacked Saguntum, a city under Roman protection. Rome declared war. Hannibal’s Strategy Hannibal, a brilliant Carthaginian general, planned to invade Italy by crossing the Alps. His army faced hardships, but he successfully entered Italy. Battle of Trebia (218 BCE) – Hannibal tricked Roman forces into crossing a freezing river. Major Battles of the War 1. Battle of Cannae (216 BCE) ○ Rome's worst defeat – 86,000 Romans vs. 45,000 Carthaginians. ○ Hannibal surrounded and annihilated the Roman army (Polybius 3.107-117). 2. Rome’s Response: Fabian Strategy ○ Q. Fabius Maximus Cunctator ("The Delayer") avoided battle and harassed Hannibal’s forces. ○ Rome attacked disloyal Italian cities. 3. Scipio Africanus & the Battle of Zama (202 BCE) ○ Scipio Africanus invaded North Africa, forcing Hannibal to return. ○ 202 BCE: Battle of Zama – Rome decisively defeated Hannibal. ○ Carthage surrendered: Gave up overseas territories. Reduced navy to 10 ships. Needed Rome’s permission to wage war. Rome After the Second Punic War Rome controlled Spain, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily.  More praetors (governors) were appointed to rule new provinces. Rome became the dominant power in the western Mediterranean. Key Takeaways First Punic War (264-241 BCE) – Rome gained Sicily, started naval warfare, and introduced provinces. Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) – Hannibal’s invasion nearly destroyed Rome, but Scipio Africanus defeated him. Rome’s empire expanded, and it became the undisputed power in the western Mediterranean. Lecture 7 Lecture 7: The Growth of a Mediterranean Empire Rome’s Expansion After the Second Punic War After 201 BCE, Rome was the dominant power in the western Mediterranean. Began expanding into Greece, Asia Minor, and North Africa. Major challenges: ○ Illyrian pirates disrupting trade. ○ Macedonian and Greek conflicts. ○ Renewed tensions with Carthage. Illyrian Wars (229-219 BCE) Illyrian pirates, under Queen Teuta, attacked Italian coastal cities (Polybius 2.2-12). Rome invaded Illyria (229 BCE), defeating the pirates. Significance: Rome’s first military campaign outside Italy. Roman Expansion in Greece & Macedonia First Macedonian War (215-205 BCE) Philip V of Macedon allied with Hannibal during the Second Punic War. Rome supported Greek allies against Philip, but no major gains were made. Second Macedonian War (200-196 BCE) Rome invaded Greece to defeat Philip V. Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BCE) – Roman legions defeated the Macedonian phalanx. Rome withdrew but acted as an arbiter in Greek conflicts. War with Antiochus III (192-188 BCE) Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire invaded Greece. Romans defeated him at Battle of Magnesia (190 BCE). Peace of Apamea (188 BCE) – Rome gained dominance over Asia Minor. Third Macedonian War (171-168 BCE) Perseus of Macedon opposed Rome. Rome won at the Battle of Pydna (168 BCE). Macedonia was divided into four Roman-controlled states. Rebellion in Greece (150-146 BCE) Greek cities revolted against Roman rule. Rome defeated the rebels and destroyed Corinth (146 BCE). The Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) – The Destruction of Carthage Causes Cato the Elder famously ended speeches with: "Carthage must be destroyed" (Plutarch, Cato 27). Rome wanted Carthaginian lands for agriculture. Carthage fought against Numidia, violating its treaty with Rome. Siege and Fall of Carthage (146 BCE) Carthage was heavily fortified with triple walls. Roman general Scipio Aemilianus led the attack. After three years of siege, Rome breached Carthage’s defenses. Carthage was destroyed, and its survivors were sold into slavery. Did Rome Salt the Earth? Ancient sources (Polybius, Livy, Plutarch) do NOT mention salt. The idea may have been invented in modern times (1930s). Key Takeaways Rome defeated Macedonia and Greece, becoming dominant in the eastern Mediterranean. The destruction of Corinth and Carthage (146 BCE) marked the consolidation of Roman power across the Mediterranean.  Rome now controlled Spain, North Africa, Greece, and Asia Minor—becoming a true Mediterranean empire. Lecture 8 Lecture 8: Internal Conflicts 146 BCE: A Turning Point for Rome Destruction of Carthage & Corinth (146 BCE) marked the peak of Roman expansion. However, internal problems had already been growing. The Roman View of Decline Cicero (On the Republic 5.2) lamented that ancient customs and virtues had disappeared. Stories emphasized self-sacrifice for Rome (e.g., Brutus executing his own sons for treason). Luxury and Corruption Livy (39.6, 187 BCE): ○ Roman soldiers brought back foreign luxuries from conquests. ○ "Seeds of corruption" were introduced. Economic Transformation Roman economy became monetized quickly. First major stimulus: Carthaginian indemnities after the First Punic War. Coinage system expanded (denarius, sestertius, aureus). Building Projects & Infrastructure Temples and basilicas were built using war spoils (e.g., Basilica Aemilia). Large private villas became more common (e.g., Villa of the Papyri). Massive aqueduct projects supplied Rome with water. Political & Social Problems Political Career Path Became Harder By 82 BCE, there were fewer available offices, making it difficult for ambitious men. Italian allies (socii) felt underrepresented, despite forming the majority of the army. Class Struggles: Land Distribution Patricians seized new lands, forcing small landowners into cities or tenancy. 140 BCE: A law limited estates to 500 iugera (625 acres), but was ignored by the Senate. Veteran land grants stopped (170 BCE) – Generals now had to find land for their soldiers. The Gracchi Reforms (133-121 BCE) Tiberius Gracchus (Tribune, 133 BCE) Proposed agrarian reform: ○ Redistributed public land seized in wars. ○ Law passed despite Senate opposition (Plutarch, Life of Tiberius Gracchus 13). 133 BCE: King Attalus III of Pergamon willed his kingdom to Rome, giving Tiberius more land to distribute. 132 BCE: He sought re-election but was assassinated by the Senate (Plutarch, Life of Tiberius Gracchus 20). Gaius Gracchus (Tribune, 123-121 BCE) Revived his brother’s land reforms. Allowed tribunes to seek re-election. 121 BCE: Senate repealed his laws, leading to riots. Senate issued an emergency decree – Gaius and 3,000 supporters were killed. Consequences for Rome The Gracchan crisis exposed the Senate’s inability to handle reform. Lower classes, allies, and political factions grew more aggressive. Ambitious politicians exploited unrest, leading to further instability in the late Republic. Key Takeaways Rome’s expansion created economic inequality, leading to land crises. The Gracchi brothers attempted reforms but were assassinated, worsening class conflicts. The Republic’s institutions struggled to manage Rome’s growing power, setting the stage for civil wars. Lecture 9 Lecture 9: The Beginnings of Civil War Political and Social Instability in Rome (Late 2nd Century BCE) Transformation of the Senate A small number of aristocratic families controlled Rome’s political offices. "New men" (novi homines)—first in their family to become consul—gained influence. Growing tensions between the elite and rising political outsiders. The Jugurthine War (111-104 BCE) Background Numidia (North Africa) was a Roman client kingdom. After the king’s death, a Roman commission divided Numidia between: ○ Adherbal (biological son). ○ Jugurtha (adopted son). Conflict with Rome Jugurtha killed Adherbal and seized Numidia. Rome intervened but struggled with guerrilla warfare, military incompetence, and corruption. Sallust (War with Jugurtha 38.6-7): Roman officers took bribes and abandoned their duties. Gaius Marius & Military Reform Marius (Consul, 107 BCE), a "new man", was elected to defeat Jugurtha. Military reforms: ○ Abolished property requirements—allowed landless citizens to enlist. ○ Loyalty shifted from Rome to generals, as soldiers relied on their commanders for land and rewards. Jugurtha captured (106 BCE), ending the war. The Germanic Threat (113-101 BCE) Germanic Migration & Roman Defeats Cimbri & Teutones, displaced Germanic tribes, migrated south. 105 BCE: Roman defeat at Battle of Arausio—worst loss since Cannae. Marius’ Military Reforms Elected consul multiple times (105-101 BCE), violating Roman law. Standardized the Roman legion: ○ Divided it into cohorts & centuries. ○ Introduced the eagle standard (Aquila) for each legion. ○ Professional training based on gladiatorial combat. "Marius’ Mules" – Soldiers carried their own equipment, making them more self- sufficient. Roman Victory (102-101 BCE) 102 BCE: Battle of Aquae Sextiae – Marius defeated one Germanic army. 101 BCE: Battle of Vercellae – Marius & Lutatius Catulus defeated the remaining forces. Land Reforms & Political Unrest (103-91 BCE) Land for Veterans Marius & Tribune Saturninus (103-100 BCE) secured land grants for veterans. 100 BCE: Marius used his soldiers to intimidate the Senate, forcing passage of the bill. The Italian Allies’ Grievances Italian allies (socii) contributed heavily to Rome’s military but lacked citizenship. 91 BCE: Tribune Livius Drusus proposed granting citizenship to all Italians. He was assassinated, triggering the Social War (91-89 BCE). The Social War (91-89 BCE) Revolt of Rome’s Italian Allies Italian allies formed a confederation with Corfinium as its capital. Rome quickly crushed the rebellion. Rome granted citizenship to all loyal Italian allies. Sulla vs. Marius: The First Civil War (88-82 BCE) Mithridatic War (88 BCE) Mithridates VI of Pontus launched a massacre of Romans in Asia Minor (Appian, Mithridatic War 23). Sulla was appointed commander but was opposed by Marius. Sulla’s First March on Rome (88 BCE) Sulla marched on Rome with his legions—the first time a Roman general did this. Marius fled into exile. Sulla’s Eastern Campaign (87-83 BCE) Sulla defeated Mithridates but had to fight Roman forces sent to oppose him. Sacked Athens (86 BCE) for supporting Mithridates. Marius & Cinna Seize Power (87-84 BCE) Marius returned to Rome with an army, executed opponents, and became consul in 86 BCE. Marius died soon after, leaving Cinna in control. Sulla’s Second March on Rome (83-82 BCE) 83 BCE: Sulla returned from the east and marched on Rome again. Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BCE) – Sulla crushed opposition. Sulla as Dictator (82-79 BCE) Dictatorship & Reforms  Declared himself dictator for 10 years but retired in 79 BCE. Proscriptions – Lists of political enemies marked for execution. Increased Senate size (from 150 to 600). Limited the powers of the Tribunes of the Plebs. Velleius Paterculus (1st Century CE) on Civil Wars "Wars were not fought for justice but for personal profit". Rome’s political system had become a battleground for ambitious generals. Key Takeaways Marius’ military reforms shifted loyalty from the state to generals, increasing instability. Sulla’s dictatorship set a precedent for military takeovers. The Republic was no longer controlled by institutions, but by powerful military leaders—setting the stage for future conflicts. Lecture 10 Lecture 10: Civil War Continued After Sulla: Political Instability (79-71 BCE) Sulla retired in 79 BCE, establishing an oligarchy of optimates (noble families). M. Aemilius Lepidus (consul, 78 BCE) attempted to repeal Sulla’s reforms and marched on Rome but was defeated. Gnaeus Pompey, a young ally of Sulla, was granted command despite never holding office. Three Major Challenges (Late 70s BCE) 1. Revolt in Spain (80-72 BCE) – Sertorius' War Quintus Sertorius, a Marius supporter, ruled Spain for six years. Pompey defeated him but needed Senate support (Plutarch, Life of Pompey 20). 2. Spartacus’ Slave Revolt (73-71 BCE) Began in gladiatorial schools in Campania. Led by Spartacus, a Thracian gladiator. Marcus Crassus crushed the revolt, but Pompey claimed credit for ending it (Appian, Civil Wars 1.118). 3. Pirates & Mithridates Piracy disrupted Mediterranean trade (Cicero, On Duties 3.107). 67 BCE: Pompey given unlimited imperium to destroy piracy—succeeded in 3 months. 66 BCE: Pompey given command against Mithridates VI of Pontus. Pompey defeated Mithridates, then expanded Rome’s eastern provinces. The Catiline Conspiracy (62 BCE) Catiline, a failed consul candidate, plotted to seize power.  Cicero exposed the conspiracy and had conspirators executed without trial (Cicero, Against Catiline 1.2). Cicero was later exiled for this action. The First Triumvirate (60-53 BCE) Senate opposed Pompey, denying land for his veterans. Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar formed an unofficial alliance. Julius Caesar (Consul, 59 BCE): Passed laws favoring Pompey & Crassus, often using violence. Caesar’s Gallic Campaigns (58-51 BCE) Granted 5-year command in Gaul. Conquered all of Gaul and invaded Britain twice. Gained massive wealth and a loyal army. Caesar (The Gallic Wars 8.46): “Gaul had been conquered and subdued.” The Fall of the Triumvirate (53 BCE) Crassus killed at Battle of Carrhae (53 BCE) against the Parthians. Senate & Pompey turned against Caesar, fearing his power. Caesar offered a compromise: keep Cisalpine Gaul until becoming consul in 48 BCE—Senate refused. Caesar Crosses the Rubicon (49 BCE) 49 BCE: Senate declared Caesar an enemy of Rome. Caesar marched on Rome with one legion, crossing the Rubicon River (Plutarch, Life of Caesar 32). "The die is cast" – Caesar seized Rome without resistance. Civil War (49-45 BCE) 1. Battle of Pharsalus (48 BCE) Pompey fled to Greece, where Caesar decisively defeated him. Pompey was assassinated in Egypt by Ptolemy XIII. 2. Siege of Alexandria (47 BCE) Caesar sided with Cleopatra, securing her rule. Began a relationship with Cleopatra, who later had his son Caesarian. 3. Final Battles (46-45 BCE) Caesar defeated remaining opposition in North Africa & Spain. 45 BCE: Caesar returned to Rome as the undisputed ruler. Caesar’s Dictatorship (46-44 BCE) Declared Dictator for 10 years (then for life). Reforms: ○ Prohibited coin hoarding & stabilized property values. ○ Settled veterans & lower-class Romans in new colonies (Corinth, Carthage). ○ Revised the Roman calendar (Julian Calendar). Was Caesar the First Emperor? Granted Imperator (Commander) as a praenomen (first name). Held power of the Tribune, Pontifex Maximus, and Pater Patriae (Father of the Nation). These titles later influenced Augustus' imperial system. The Assassination of Caesar (44 BCE) March 15, 44 BCE ("Ides of March") – Julius Caesar was stabbed by senators, led by Brutus & Cassius. The Republic had collapsed, leading to another civil war. Key Takeaways Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar dominated Rome, but internal rivalries led to civil war. Caesar’s military success made him too powerful, leading to his march on Rome. His dictatorship reshaped Rome, but his assassination marked the end of the Republic. Rome would soon become an empire under Augustus.