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Questions and Answers

What is the primary characteristic of a Variable Ratio reinforcement schedule?

Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of responses

Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses (correct)

Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time

Reinforcement occurs after a specific behaviour

What is the main difference between Primary and Secondary Reinforcers?

Primary Reinforcers are innate, while Secondary Reinforcers are learned (correct)

Primary Reinforcers are immediate, while Secondary Reinforcers are delayed

Primary Reinforcers are tangible, while Secondary Reinforcers are intangible

Primary Reinforcers are learned, while Secondary Reinforcers are innate

What is the main goal of using a Secondary Reinforcer in Operant Conditioning?

To create a Primary Reinforcer

To associate a stimulus with a Primary Reinforcer (correct)

To establish a Classical Conditioning response

To punish an undesired behaviour

What is the Premack Principle primarily used for?

To use a desired behaviour to reinforce a less desirable behaviour Signup and view all the answers

What is a common issue with Punishment in Operant Conditioning?

It typically leads to escape behaviour Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a Fixed Interval reinforcement schedule?

Reinforcement occurs after a specified time has elapsed Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between a Variable Internal and a Fixed Interval reinforcement schedule?

Variable Internal schedules are unpredictable, while Fixed Interval schedules are predictable Signup and view all the answers

What is a common outcome of Punishment in Operant Conditioning?

Temporary behavioural change Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of Skinner's experiment with Agnes?

Agnes learned to stand on her hind legs and jump on command Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of a larger reward on the acquisition of learning?

The acquisition of learning is faster Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the response when the reward is delayed?

The response is weaker Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of continuous reinforcement on the desired response?

The desired response occurs each time Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of partial intermittent reinforcement on the response?

The response is slower to acquire and resistant to extinction Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of reinforcement schedule where reinforcement depends on the number of responses made?

Fixed Ratio Schedule Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of habituation to the reinforcer?

The reinforcer loses its reinforcing qualities Signup and view all the answers

Why do rats prefer 1 cube in pieces to one cube?

Because it appears to be greater Signup and view all the answers

According to radical behaviourism, what is the implication of locating the cause for all human behaviour in the environment?

We have no choice in what we do Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?

Type of consequence involved Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a pleasant consequence that follows an action, which increases the likelihood of the action?

Positive reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

Which type of learning is characterized by the ability to generate an idea, test it, and refine it?

Insight Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for an event that predicts a consequence in classical conditioning?

Conditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary outcome of punitive aggression according to the provided text?

May lead to modelling of aggression Signup and view all the answers

Which type of learning involves a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli?

Classical conditioning Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour?

Negative reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the phenomenon where an individual fails to learn to escape a situation despite having the opportunity to do so?

Learned Helplessness Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of Behavioural Therapy in relation to operant conditioning?

To remedy everyday behaviour problems Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of specialized learning?

Classical conditioning Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the process of learning through observing others' experiences?

Observational Learning Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of Biofeedback training?

To promote relaxation and reduce stress Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why we copy others in Observational Learning?

When a-social learning is costly and uncertain Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the process of punishing undesired behaviour, which can lead to PTSD if the punishment is very aversive?

Punitive Aggression Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary outcome of inescapable and unavoidable electric shocks, as demonstrated by Overmier and Seligman (1967)?

Learned Helplessness Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of positive punishment in operant conditioning?

To decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Positive reinforcement is the presentation of a pleasant stimulus, while negative reinforcement is the removal of an aversive stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of discriminative stimuli in operant conditioning?

To inform us as to when we can emit a voluntary response Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of shaping in operant conditioning?

To acquire complex behaviors through successive approximations Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of the b-process in drug withdrawal?

The negative effects of the b-process becoming extreme Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between negative punishment and positive punishment in operant conditioning?

Negative punishment involves the removal of a pleasant stimulus, while positive punishment involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of discriminative stimuli in classical conditioning?

To elicit autonomic responses Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of stimulus generalization in operant conditioning?

A response will be followed by a reward or punishment in the presence of a similar stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their definitions:

Contingency = The relationship between two events, one being a consequence of the other Associative Learning = A type of learning involving the association between two previously unrelated stimuli Conditioned Response = A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus Predictability = The ability to forecast the occurrence of an event based on past experiences Signup and view all the answers

Match the following theories with their primary focus:

Contiguity Theory = The idea that learning occurs through the close proximity of events Associative Learning = The formation of associations between stimuli Classical Conditioning = The acquisition of information about the relationship among events Instrumental Learning = The learning of voluntary actions based on their consequences Signup and view all the answers

Match the following conditioning types with their characteristics:

Excitatory Conditioning = The learning of a stimulus to elicit a response Inhibitory Conditioning = The learning of a stimulus to suppress a response Classical Conditioning = A type of learning involving the association between two stimuli Operant Conditioning = A type of learning involving the consequences of actions Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their descriptions:

Contingency = The probability of an event occurring given the occurrence of another event Probability = The likelihood of an event occurring Association = The connection between two stimuli Prediction = The forecast of an event based on past experiences Signup and view all the answers

Match the following learning outcomes with their descriptions:

Associative Learning = The learning of a new association between two stimuli Classical Conditioning = The acquisition of information about the relationship among events Instrumental Learning = The learning of voluntary actions based on their consequences Exposure Learning = The learning of a new response to a previously neutral stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their relationships:

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = A neutral stimulus that becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned Stimulus (US) = A stimulus that naturally elicits a response Conditioned Response (CR) = A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus Unconditioned Response (UR) = A natural response to an unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Match the following theories with their underlying principles:

Contiguity Theory = The idea that events that occur together become associated Contingency Theory = The idea that learning occurs based on the probability of events Classical Conditioning = The acquisition of information about the relationship among events Instrumental Learning = The learning of voluntary actions based on their consequences Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their applications:

Associative Learning = Understanding phobias and anxiety disorders Classical Conditioning = Treating addiction and substance abuse Instrumental Learning = Developing coping skills for anxiety and depression Contingency Theory = Understanding the role of predictability in learning Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their respective descriptions in operant conditioning:

Reinforcer Magnitude = The larger the reward, the faster the acquisition of learning. Delay of Reward = The response must always be reinforced when it is a new response. Frequency of Reinforcement = The larger the reward, the faster the rats run down the alley. Reinforcement Contingencies = The greater the delay, the weaker the learning. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following reinforcement schedules with their characteristics:

Fixed Ratio = Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. Ratio Schedules = Reinforcing a response only part of the time results in slower acquisition and greater resistance to extinction. Partial Intermittent Reinforcement = The faster you respond, the more rewards you get. Intermittent Reinforcement = Reinforcement depends on the number of responses made. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their respective effects on behaviour:

Habituation to the Reinforcer = The response becomes stronger due to the increased reward. Satiation = The organism becomes sated with the reinforcer, leading to decreased response. Continuous Reinforcement = The desired response occurs each time. Partial Reinforcement = The response becomes weaker due to the inconsistent reward. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following examples with their respective reinforcement types:

Children learning faster with small prizes = Reinforcer Magnitude Rats preferring 1 cube in pieces to one cube = Delay of Reward Adults showing higher achievement with more money = Frequency of Reinforcement Agnes learning to stand on her hind legs = Reinforcement Contingencies Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their respective effects on learning:

Crespi's Experiment = The larger the reward, the faster the acquisition of learning. Skinner's Experiment with Agnes = The response becomes stronger due to the consistent reward. Rats Running Down the Alley = The faster the response, the more rewards you get. Children Learning with Small Prizes = The response becomes weaker due to the inconsistent reward. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following reinforcement schedules with their respective effects on behaviour:

Fixed Ratio = The response becomes stronger due to the consistent reward. Variable Ratio = The response becomes weaker due to the inconsistent reward. Partial Intermittent Reinforcement = The desired response occurs each time. Intermittent Reinforcement = The response becomes stronger due to the increased reward. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their respective effects on reinforcement:

Reinforcer Quality = The response becomes stronger due to the increased reward. Reinforcer Magnitude = The response becomes weaker due to the inconsistent reward. Reinforcement Timings = The response becomes stronger due to the consistent reward. Frequency of Reinforcement = The desired response occurs each time. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their respective effects on behaviour:

Habituation = The response becomes stronger due to the increased reward. Satiation = The response becomes weaker due to the inconsistent reward. Delay of Reward = The desired response occurs each time. Continuous Reinforcement = The response becomes stronger due to the consistent reward. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their corresponding descriptions in the context of operant conditioning:

Biofeedback training = Process of learning through observing others' experiences Punitive aggression = Learning that occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Token Economies = A type of therapy that uses reinforcement to promote relaxation Observational learning = A type of training that helps individuals control bodily processes not normally under voluntary control Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their corresponding outcomes in the context of operant conditioning:

Overmier and Seligman's experiment = Learning that occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Punitive aggression = Failed to learn to escape a situation despite having the opportunity to do so Token Economies = A type of reinforcement schedule where reinforcement depends on the number of responses made Seligman and Maier's experiment = Learning that occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their corresponding concepts in the context of operant conditioning:

Predictability = The ability to generate an idea, test it, and refine it Contiguity Theory = The idea that the association between a stimulus and a response is based on the temporal proximity of the two events Conditioned Response = A type of learning that involves a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli Association Learning = The process of learning through observing others' experiences Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their corresponding theories in the context of operant conditioning:

Contingency Theory = The idea that the association between a stimulus and a response is based on the temporal proximity of the two events Conditioned Response = The theory that learning occurs as a result of the association between a stimulus and a response Association Learning = The theory that learning occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Observational learning = The theory that learning occurs as a result of the contingency between a response and its consequence Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their corresponding applications in the context of operant conditioning:

Token Economies = A type of therapy that uses reinforcement to promote relaxation Behavioural Therapy = A type of training that helps individuals control bodily processes not normally under voluntary control Biofeedback training = A type of therapy that aims to remedy everyday behaviour problems Observational learning = A type of therapy that uses reinforcement to promote social skills Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their corresponding characteristics in the context of operant conditioning:

Punitive aggression = A type of aggression that can lead to modelling of aggression Learned Helplessness = A type of learning that occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Token Economies = A type of reinforcement schedule where reinforcement depends on the number of responses made Overmier and Seligman's experiment = A type of aggression that can lead to PTSD if the punishment is very aversive Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their corresponding consequences in the context of operant conditioning:

Punitive aggression = Failed to learn to escape a situation despite having the opportunity to do so Token Economies = A type of reinforcement schedule where reinforcement depends on the number of responses made Overmier and Seligman's experiment = A type of learning that occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Seligman and Maier's experiment = A type of aggression that can lead to PTSD if the punishment is very aversive Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their corresponding types of reinforcement in the context of operant conditioning:

Token Economies = A type of reinforcement that depends on the number of responses made Biofeedback training = A type of reinforcement that uses internal bodily processes to promote relaxation Observational learning = A type of reinforcement that occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Punitive aggression = A type of reinforcement that aims to reduce undesired behaviour Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their definitions:

Contiguity Theory = Associations are formed between stimuli presented together in time. Contingency Theory = A CR develops when the CS is able to predict the occurrence of the US. Conditioned Response = A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Predictability = The ability of an organism to recognise the likelihood of the US after a CS. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following theories with their descriptions:

Continguity Theory = When two stimuli are presented together in time, associations are formed between the two. Contingency Theory = A CR develops when the CS is able to predict the occurrence of the US. Classical Conditioning = About predicting future events, where CS prepares the animal for an imminent event. Association Learning = Forming associations between two previously unrelated stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their characteristics:

Conditioned Stimulus = A stimulus that elicits a conditioned response. Unconditioned Stimulus = A stimulus that naturally elicits a response. Conditioned Response = A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Unconditioned Response = A natural response to an unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their explanations:

Predictability = The ability of an organism to recognise the likelihood of the US after a CS. Contingency = The probability that the US will occur given that the CS has just occurred. Association Learning = Forming associations between two previously unrelated stimuli. Classical Conditioning = About predicting future events, where CS prepares the animal for an imminent event. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following theories with their implications:

Continguity Theory = Temporal contiguity is sufficient for classical conditioning to occur. Contingency Theory = A CR develops when the CS is able to predict the occurrence of the US. Classical Conditioning = The CS sets up the expectation for the US and elicits the CR. Association Learning = Associations are formed between two previously unrelated stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their roles:

Conditioned Stimulus = Prepares the animal for an imminent event. Unconditioned Stimulus = Naturally elicits a response. Conditioned Response = Elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Unconditioned Response = A natural response to an unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their characteristics:

Reliability of CS-US pairing = The probability that the US will occur given that the CS has just occurred. Uniqueness of CS-US pairing = The probability of the US occurring given that no CS has occurred. Continguity Theory = Associations are formed between stimuli presented together in time. Contingency Theory = A CR develops when the CS is able to predict the occurrence of the US. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their characteristics in Association Learning:

Conditioned Response = CS comes on first and overlaps with the US coming on. Delayed Conditioning = The CS does not predict the US very well. Simultaneous Conditioning = The CS predicts the US, but only if the gap isn't too large. Backward Conditioning = CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their descriptions in Contiguity Theory:

Predictability = The CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur. Contingency = The CS predicts the US, but only if the gap isn't too large. Association = The CS does not predict the US very well. Conditioning = CS comes on first and overlaps with the US coming on. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following reinforcement schedules with their characteristics:

Fixed Interval = Getting paid to work, you turn up each day, may be work hard may be not. Variable Interval = Pressing a button on a crossing (hoping the more you do it the quicker the reward/response will come) Fixed Ratio = Getting paid after doing a certain amount of work. Variable Ratio = Not mentioned. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their relationships in Contingency Theory:

CS-US = The CS predicts the US, but only if the gap isn't too large. US-CS = The CS does not predict the US very well. CS-Response = The CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur. Response-US = CS comes on first and overlaps with the US coming on. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their applications in Association Learning:

Conditioned Response = Learning about the CS in the four situations. Predictability = Not mentioned. Association = CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur. Contingency = Provides new information about the US. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following theories with their underlying principles:

Contiguity Theory = The CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur. Association Learning = The CS predicts the US, but only if the gap isn't too large. Contingency Theory = Provides new information about the US. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their descriptions in Classical Conditioning:

Conditioned Response = CS comes on first and overlaps with the US coming on. Unconditioned Response = Not mentioned. Conditioned Stimulus = The CS predicts the US, but only if the gap isn't too large. Unconditioned Stimulus = The CS does not predict the US very well. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following learning outcomes with their descriptions:

Acquisition of CR = Sequence of CS-US Presentation. Extinction = Not mentioned. Spontaneous Recovery = Provides new information about the US. Learning = CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur. Signup and view all the answers

According to radical behaviourism, locating the cause for all human behaviour in the environment implies that humans have free will.

False Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, the association between two stimuli is established through contiguity.

True Signup and view all the answers

Predictability is a critical factor in operant conditioning, but not in classical conditioning.

False Signup and view all the answers

A conditioned response is a natural response to a stimulus that is learned through experience.

False Signup and view all the answers

Association learning is a type of learning that involves the formation of associations between stimuli and responses.

True Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus always precedes the unconditioned stimulus.

False Signup and view all the answers

The contiguity theory suggests that the closer in time two events occur, the stronger the association between them will be.

True Signup and view all the answers

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that involves the association of two previously unrelated responses.

False Signup and view all the answers

Simple learning usually involves a conscious decision to learn.

False Signup and view all the answers

Edward Thorndike discovered the law of contiguity, which states that a behaviour will be repeated if followed by a positive consequence.

True Signup and view all the answers

Shaping is a process of incremental reinforcement, where an animal learns to perform a complex action through small steps.

True Signup and view all the answers

General learning always involves a specific consequence for a specific action.

True Signup and view all the answers

Biological systems involved in simple learning are often voluntary responses.

False Signup and view all the answers

Skinner expanded on Thorndike's work by discovering the law of contiguity.

False Signup and view all the answers

Simple learning can result in long-term changes to behaviour.

False Signup and view all the answers

General learning can be specific to one biological system or apply to multiple systems.

True Signup and view all the answers

Social facilitation is a type of observational learning.

False Signup and view all the answers

True imitation involves duplicating a novel behavior to achieve a specific goal, with understanding of the behavior.

False Signup and view all the answers

Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory proposes that we learn primarily through trial-anderror.

False Signup and view all the answers

Local or stimulus enhancement involves mimicking the actions of a model.

False Signup and view all the answers

Observational learning involves four processes: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation through reinforcement.

True Signup and view all the answers

Children are more likely to imitate someone they perceive as different from themselves.

False Signup and view all the answers

Vicarious reinforcement is necessary for observational learning to occur.

True Signup and view all the answers

Aggressive male models are less likely to be imitated than aggressive female models.

False Signup and view all the answers

Habituation is a type of learning that tends to be specific to multiple biological systems.

False Signup and view all the answers

Sensitization occurs when our response to an event decreases with repeated exposure.

False Signup and view all the answers

Simple learning is a type of learning that usually lasts long.

False Signup and view all the answers

Habituation is a natural response to repeated loud noises, resulting in a decrease in the tendency to respond.

True Signup and view all the answers

Simple learning is usually voluntary.

False Signup and view all the answers

Biological systems involved in simple learning are often controlled by reflexes.

True Signup and view all the answers

The change in behaviour in simple learning is usually of a very general form.

False Signup and view all the answers

Habituation and sensitisation are natural responses to novel events.

False Signup and view all the answers

The strength of the conditioned stimulus has a significant impact on the conditioned response.

False Signup and view all the answers

The number of CS-US pairings can lead to a response ceiling, where further conditioning is no longer possible.

True Signup and view all the answers

The opponent-process theory of emotion suggests that experiencing one emotion can temporarily inhibit the other emotion.

True Signup and view all the answers

The primary affective response habituates with repeated exposure to the stimulus, according to the a-process.

True Signup and view all the answers

Conditioned taste aversion is an example of a weak conditioned response.

False Signup and view all the answers

The contiguity theory suggests that the association between the CS and US is based on the predictability of the US.

False Signup and view all the answers

The conditioned response can be inhibited if the learner recognizes the CS as a signal that the US is over and won't be coming again.

True Signup and view all the answers

The association between the CS and US is strengthened by the number of times the CS is paired with the US, according to Pavlov.

True Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of true imitation?

Imitation of a novel behaviour pattern in order to achieve a specific goal Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary process involved in observational learning?

Attention Signup and view all the answers

What is the key feature of the model in social learning theory?

Aggressive male models are more likely to be imitated Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of local or stimulus enhancement in social learning?

The learner attends to the object of the model's behaviour Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of social facilitation?

One's behaviour prompts similar behaviour of another Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of reinforcement in observational learning?

To reinforce the learner's behaviour Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary outcome of observational learning?

The learner imitates the model's behaviour Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between true imitation and social facilitation?

True imitation involves novel behaviour, while social facilitation involves already learned behaviour Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of simple learning?

It is a type of involuntary learning Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of an action that is followed by a positive consequence in Thorndike's law?

The action becomes more likely to occur in the future Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of shaping in operant conditioning?

To establish a complex behavior through incremental steps Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between simple learning and general learning?

Simple learning is specific to one biological system while general learning involves multiple biological systems Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of biological systems in simple learning?

They are involved in simple learning and often reflexes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of intense learning?

It is equivalent to sensitization Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of Edward Thorndike's experiment with cats?

To demonstrate the action-consequence relationship Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of the learning process described by Thorndike?

It is a type of operant conditioning Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

One is based on the action-consequence relationship, while the other is based on the event-consequence relationship. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

To associate with the conditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of learning a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli?

Classical conditioning Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?

One involves the presentation of a stimulus, while the other involves the removal of a stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the learning process that involves the ability to generate an idea, test it, and refine it?

Think, Test, Revise Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a biologically salient consequence?

It is a pleasant or unpleasant stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning in terms of the direction of the association?

Classical conditioning involves the association of an event with a consequence, while operant conditioning involves the association of a consequence with an event. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

To associate with the unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary factor that influences the strength of the conditioned response?

The strength of the US Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of repeated exposure to the stimulus in the Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion?

The primary affective response habituates Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the conditioned response in associative learning?

It is a response to the CS that is paired with the US Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the CS in associative learning?

It is a conditioned stimulus that predicts the US Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of the habituation process in associative learning?

The response to the CS decreases Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between the a-process and the b-process in the Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion?

The a-process is the initial emotional response, while the b-process is the emotional after-reaction Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of the number of CS-US pairings on the conditioned response?

It increases the conditioned response up to a point Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the US in associative learning?

It is an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a response Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of habituation in simple learning?

Decreased response to repeated stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What determines whether repetition of a stimulus results in habituation or sensitization?

Intensity of the stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of repeated exposure to a mild stimulus in simple learning?

Habituation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between habituation and sensitization?

Habituation results in decreased response, while sensitization results in increased response Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of biological systems in simple learning?

They are involved in simple learning, often as reflexes Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of simple learning in terms of the change in behavior?

The change in behavior is short-term and specific Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between habituation and sensitization?

They are complementary processes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of habituation in simple learning?

To decrease response to familiar stimuli Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behavior is modified by its consequences.
Reinforcement is a key concept in operant conditioning, where a response is followed by a pleasant stimulus, increasing the likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio (FR): reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Variable Ratio (VR): reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed Interval (FI): reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Variable Internal (VI): reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Motivated Behaviours

Primary reinforcers: innate, biological, and essential for survival (e.g., food, water, sex).
Secondary reinforcers: acquired through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, grades).

The Premack Principle

Using a desired or high-frequency behavior to reinforce a less desirable or lower-frequency behavior.

Issues of Punishment

Punishment does not usually result in long-term behavioral change, and effects are often temporary.
Punishment does not promote better behavior, and may lead to escape behavior or fear of the administrator.
Punishment may not undo existing rewards for the behavior unless it is delivered consistently.

Punishment Types

Positive Punishment: presentation of an aversive stimulus after a behavior.
Negative Punishment: removal of a pleasant stimulus after a behavior.

Reinforcement Types

Positive Reinforcement: presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: removal of an aversive stimulus after a behavior.

Discriminative Stimuli

In classical conditioning, they elicit autonomic responses (i.e., involuntary reflexes).
In operant conditioning, they inform us when to emit a voluntary response.

Acquiring Complex Behaviours

Shaping: a procedure in which reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Behavioural Therapy: token economies, remedial education, therapy for autism, training dogs, and biofeedback.
Observational Learning: learning by watching others, also known as vicarious conditioning or behavioral contagion.

Variables that Affect Operant Conditioning

Reinforcer Magnitude: the larger the reward, the faster the acquisition of learning.
Delay of Reward: the greater the delay, the weaker the learning.
Frequency of Reinforcement: the response must always be reinforced when it is a new response.
Reinforcement Contingencies: timing and schedules of reinforcement affect learning.

Specialized Learning

Some forms of specialized learning are restricted to certain species, such as insight, imitation, and language learning.
Think, Test, Revise (cognition) is a skill that is perhaps restricted to a limited number of species.

Classical Conditioning

Rescorla disagreed with Pavlov on what makes the CS a useful predictor of the US, proposing that contingency (the relationship between two events) is key, not just the number of CS-US pairings.
Contingency refers to the relationship between two events, one being a consequence of the other.
Rescorla conceptualized classical conditioning as involving the acquisition of information about the relationship among events in the environment.
Contingency can predict the presence or absence of the US.

Contingency and Classical Conditioning

Excitatory conditioning: likelihood of something occurring given that something else did.
Inhibitory conditioning: likelihood of something NOT occurring given that something else did.
The Effect of Contingency on Classical Conditioning: contingency affects the extent of classical conditioning.

Higher-Order Conditioning

Two factors determine the extent of higher-order conditioning:
- Similarity between the higher-order stimulus and the original conditioned stimulus.
- Frequency and consistency of pairing the two conditioned stimuli.

Classical Conditioning and Prediction

Classical conditioning is about predicting future events.
The CS prepares the animal/person for an imminent event, sets up the expectation for that event, and elicits the CR.
The CS must be a predictor of the imminent arrival of the US.
Predictions are indicative of the organism being able to recognize the likelihood of the US (after a CS).

Contiguity Theory and Contingency Theory

Contiguity theory: associations are formed between two stimuli when they are presented together in time.
Contingency theory: a CR develops when the CS is able to predict the occurrence of the US.
Contingency theory relies heavily on predictability and expectation.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Behavioral Therapy: token economies, remedial education, therapy for autism, training dogs, and biofeedback.
Observational Learning: learning by watching others, also known as vicarious conditioning or behavioral contagion.

Variables that Affect Operant Conditioning

Reinforcer Magnitude: larger rewards lead to faster acquisition of learning.
Delay of Reward: the greater the delay, the weaker the learning.
Frequency of Reinforcement: continuous reinforcement ensures the desired response occurs each time.
Reinforcement Contingencies:
- Schedules of Reinforcement: ratio schedules, fixed ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval.

Learning Types

Simple learning: usually involuntary, involves biological systems and reflexes, does not last long, and is specific to one biological system
General learning: involves action-consequence, discovered by Edward Thorndike
Specialised learning: restricted to certain species, includes forms like insight, imitation, and language learning

Conditioning

Classical Conditioning: learning a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli, discovered by Ivan Pavlov
Operant Conditioning: consequence learning, also known as instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning, discovered by B.F. Skinner
Consequences: biologically salient, can be pleasant or unpleasant, and influence behaviour
Reinforcement: presenting a pleasant consequence or removing an unpleasant one
Punishment: presenting an unpleasant consequence or removing a pleasant one

Classical Conditioning

Event → consequence
Simple learning tends to be specific to one biological system
Conditioning can be intense or sensitisation
Habituation: decline in response to a familiar stimulus
Sensitisation: increased response to a repeated stimulus

Social Facilitation: one's behaviour prompts similar behaviour in another
Local or Stimulus Enhancement: behaviour directs attention to an object
True Imitation: duplicating a novel behaviour to achieve a specific goal
Observational Learning Processes: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
Social Learning Theory: formation of a symbolic representation through vicarious reinforcement
Key Features of the Model: appropriateness, similarity, and reinforcement

Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion

When experiencing one emotion, the other is temporarily inhibited
With repeated stimulus, the initial emotion becomes weaker, and the opposing emotion intensifies
Emotional after-reaction: an emotional stimulus creates an initial response, followed by adaptation, then opposite response

Learning Types

Simple learning: usually involuntary, involves biological systems and reflexes, does not last long, and is specific to one biological system
General learning: involves action-consequence, discovered by Edward Thorndike
Specialised learning: restricted to certain species, includes forms like insight, imitation, and language learning

Conditioning

Classical Conditioning: learning a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli, discovered by Ivan Pavlov
Operant Conditioning: consequence learning, also known as instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning, discovered by B.F. Skinner
Consequences: biologically salient, can be pleasant or unpleasant, and influence behaviour
Reinforcement: presenting a pleasant consequence or removing an unpleasant one
Punishment: presenting an unpleasant consequence or removing a pleasant one

Classical Conditioning

Event → consequence
Simple learning tends to be specific to one biological system
Conditioning can be intense or sensitisation
Habituation: decline in response to a familiar stimulus
Sensitisation: increased response to a repeated stimulus

Social Facilitation: one's behaviour prompts similar behaviour in another
Local or Stimulus Enhancement: behaviour directs attention to an object
True Imitation: duplicating a novel behaviour to achieve a specific goal
Observational Learning Processes: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
Social Learning Theory: formation of a symbolic representation through vicarious reinforcement
Key Features of the Model: appropriateness, similarity, and reinforcement

Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion

When experiencing one emotion, the other is temporarily inhibited
With repeated stimulus, the initial emotion becomes weaker, and the opposing emotion intensifies
Emotional after-reaction: an emotional stimulus creates an initial response, followed by adaptation, then opposite response

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Description

Learn about different types of reinforcement schedules, including variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval, in psychology. Understand how they work and their effects on behavior.