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Questions and Answers

What is the primary characteristic of a Variable Ratio reinforcement schedule?

  • Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of responses
  • Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses (correct)
  • Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time
  • Reinforcement occurs after a specific behaviour

    • What is the main difference between Primary and Secondary Reinforcers?

  • Primary Reinforcers are innate, while Secondary Reinforcers are learned (correct)
  • Primary Reinforcers are immediate, while Secondary Reinforcers are delayed
  • Primary Reinforcers are tangible, while Secondary Reinforcers are intangible
  • Primary Reinforcers are learned, while Secondary Reinforcers are innate

    • What is the main goal of using a Secondary Reinforcer in Operant Conditioning?

  • To create a Primary Reinforcer
  • To associate a stimulus with a Primary Reinforcer (correct)
  • To establish a Classical Conditioning response
  • To punish an undesired behaviour

    • What is the Premack Principle primarily used for?

    <p>To use a desired behaviour to reinforce a less desirable behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common issue with Punishment in Operant Conditioning?

    <p>It typically leads to escape behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a Fixed Interval reinforcement schedule?

    <p>Reinforcement occurs after a specified time has elapsed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between a Variable Internal and a Fixed Interval reinforcement schedule?

    <p>Variable Internal schedules are unpredictable, while Fixed Interval schedules are predictable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common outcome of Punishment in Operant Conditioning?

    <p>Temporary behavioural change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the outcome of Skinner's experiment with Agnes?

    <p>Agnes learned to stand on her hind legs and jump on command</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of a larger reward on the acquisition of learning?

    <p>The acquisition of learning is faster</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the response when the reward is delayed?

    <p>The response is weaker</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of continuous reinforcement on the desired response?

    <p>The desired response occurs each time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of partial intermittent reinforcement on the response?

    <p>The response is slower to acquire and resistant to extinction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the type of reinforcement schedule where reinforcement depends on the number of responses made?

    <p>Fixed Ratio Schedule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of habituation to the reinforcer?

    <p>The reinforcer loses its reinforcing qualities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do rats prefer 1 cube in pieces to one cube?

    <p>Because it appears to be greater</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to radical behaviourism, what is the implication of locating the cause for all human behaviour in the environment?

    <p>We have no choice in what we do</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?

    <p>Type of consequence involved</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a pleasant consequence that follows an action, which increases the likelihood of the action?

    <p>Positive reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of learning is characterized by the ability to generate an idea, test it, and refine it?

    <p>Insight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for an event that predicts a consequence in classical conditioning?

    <p>Conditioned stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary outcome of punitive aggression according to the provided text?

    <p>May lead to modelling of aggression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of learning involves a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli?

    <p>Classical conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour?

    <p>Negative reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the phenomenon where an individual fails to learn to escape a situation despite having the opportunity to do so?

    <p>Learned Helplessness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of Behavioural Therapy in relation to operant conditioning?

    <p>To remedy everyday behaviour problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of specialized learning?

    <p>Classical conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the process of learning through observing others' experiences?

    <p>Observational Learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of Biofeedback training?

    <p>To promote relaxation and reduce stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why we copy others in Observational Learning?

    <p>When a-social learning is costly and uncertain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the process of punishing undesired behaviour, which can lead to PTSD if the punishment is very aversive?

    <p>Punitive Aggression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary outcome of inescapable and unavoidable electric shocks, as demonstrated by Overmier and Seligman (1967)?

    <p>Learned Helplessness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of positive punishment in operant conditioning?

    <p>To decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement in operant conditioning?

    <p>Positive reinforcement is the presentation of a pleasant stimulus, while negative reinforcement is the removal of an aversive stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of discriminative stimuli in operant conditioning?

    <p>To inform us as to when we can emit a voluntary response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of shaping in operant conditioning?

    <p>To acquire complex behaviors through successive approximations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the b-process in drug withdrawal?

    <p>The negative effects of the b-process becoming extreme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between negative punishment and positive punishment in operant conditioning?

    <p>Negative punishment involves the removal of a pleasant stimulus, while positive punishment involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of discriminative stimuli in classical conditioning?

    <p>To elicit autonomic responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of stimulus generalization in operant conditioning?

    <p>A response will be followed by a reward or punishment in the presence of a similar stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their definitions:

    <p>Contingency = The relationship between two events, one being a consequence of the other Associative Learning = A type of learning involving the association between two previously unrelated stimuli Conditioned Response = A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus Predictability = The ability to forecast the occurrence of an event based on past experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following theories with their primary focus:

    <p>Contiguity Theory = The idea that learning occurs through the close proximity of events Associative Learning = The formation of associations between stimuli Classical Conditioning = The acquisition of information about the relationship among events Instrumental Learning = The learning of voluntary actions based on their consequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following conditioning types with their characteristics:

    <p>Excitatory Conditioning = The learning of a stimulus to elicit a response Inhibitory Conditioning = The learning of a stimulus to suppress a response Classical Conditioning = A type of learning involving the association between two stimuli Operant Conditioning = A type of learning involving the consequences of actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their descriptions:

    <p>Contingency = The probability of an event occurring given the occurrence of another event Probability = The likelihood of an event occurring Association = The connection between two stimuli Prediction = The forecast of an event based on past experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following learning outcomes with their descriptions:

    <p>Associative Learning = The learning of a new association between two stimuli Classical Conditioning = The acquisition of information about the relationship among events Instrumental Learning = The learning of voluntary actions based on their consequences Exposure Learning = The learning of a new response to a previously neutral stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their relationships:

    <p>Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = A neutral stimulus that becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned Stimulus (US) = A stimulus that naturally elicits a response Conditioned Response (CR) = A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus Unconditioned Response (UR) = A natural response to an unconditioned stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following theories with their underlying principles:

    <p>Contiguity Theory = The idea that events that occur together become associated Contingency Theory = The idea that learning occurs based on the probability of events Classical Conditioning = The acquisition of information about the relationship among events Instrumental Learning = The learning of voluntary actions based on their consequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their applications:

    <p>Associative Learning = Understanding phobias and anxiety disorders Classical Conditioning = Treating addiction and substance abuse Instrumental Learning = Developing coping skills for anxiety and depression Contingency Theory = Understanding the role of predictability in learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their respective descriptions in operant conditioning:

    <p>Reinforcer Magnitude = The larger the reward, the faster the acquisition of learning. Delay of Reward = The response must always be reinforced when it is a new response. Frequency of Reinforcement = The larger the reward, the faster the rats run down the alley. Reinforcement Contingencies = The greater the delay, the weaker the learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following reinforcement schedules with their characteristics:

    <p>Fixed Ratio = Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. Ratio Schedules = Reinforcing a response only part of the time results in slower acquisition and greater resistance to extinction. Partial Intermittent Reinforcement = The faster you respond, the more rewards you get. Intermittent Reinforcement = Reinforcement depends on the number of responses made.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their respective effects on behaviour:

    <p>Habituation to the Reinforcer = The response becomes stronger due to the increased reward. Satiation = The organism becomes sated with the reinforcer, leading to decreased response. Continuous Reinforcement = The desired response occurs each time. Partial Reinforcement = The response becomes weaker due to the inconsistent reward.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following examples with their respective reinforcement types:

    <p>Children learning faster with small prizes = Reinforcer Magnitude Rats preferring 1 cube in pieces to one cube = Delay of Reward Adults showing higher achievement with more money = Frequency of Reinforcement Agnes learning to stand on her hind legs = Reinforcement Contingencies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their respective effects on learning:

    <p>Crespi's Experiment = The larger the reward, the faster the acquisition of learning. Skinner's Experiment with Agnes = The response becomes stronger due to the consistent reward. Rats Running Down the Alley = The faster the response, the more rewards you get. Children Learning with Small Prizes = The response becomes weaker due to the inconsistent reward.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following reinforcement schedules with their respective effects on behaviour:

    <p>Fixed Ratio = The response becomes stronger due to the consistent reward. Variable Ratio = The response becomes weaker due to the inconsistent reward. Partial Intermittent Reinforcement = The desired response occurs each time. Intermittent Reinforcement = The response becomes stronger due to the increased reward.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their respective effects on reinforcement:

    <p>Reinforcer Quality = The response becomes stronger due to the increased reward. Reinforcer Magnitude = The response becomes weaker due to the inconsistent reward. Reinforcement Timings = The response becomes stronger due to the consistent reward. Frequency of Reinforcement = The desired response occurs each time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their respective effects on behaviour:

    <p>Habituation = The response becomes stronger due to the increased reward. Satiation = The response becomes weaker due to the inconsistent reward. Delay of Reward = The desired response occurs each time. Continuous Reinforcement = The response becomes stronger due to the consistent reward.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding descriptions in the context of operant conditioning:

    <p>Biofeedback training = Process of learning through observing others' experiences Punitive aggression = Learning that occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Token Economies = A type of therapy that uses reinforcement to promote relaxation Observational learning = A type of training that helps individuals control bodily processes not normally under voluntary control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding outcomes in the context of operant conditioning:

    <p>Overmier and Seligman's experiment = Learning that occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Punitive aggression = Failed to learn to escape a situation despite having the opportunity to do so Token Economies = A type of reinforcement schedule where reinforcement depends on the number of responses made Seligman and Maier's experiment = Learning that occurs as a result of observing the experience of others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding concepts in the context of operant conditioning:

    <p>Predictability = The ability to generate an idea, test it, and refine it Contiguity Theory = The idea that the association between a stimulus and a response is based on the temporal proximity of the two events Conditioned Response = A type of learning that involves a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli Association Learning = The process of learning through observing others' experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding theories in the context of operant conditioning:

    <p>Contingency Theory = The idea that the association between a stimulus and a response is based on the temporal proximity of the two events Conditioned Response = The theory that learning occurs as a result of the association between a stimulus and a response Association Learning = The theory that learning occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Observational learning = The theory that learning occurs as a result of the contingency between a response and its consequence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding applications in the context of operant conditioning:

    <p>Token Economies = A type of therapy that uses reinforcement to promote relaxation Behavioural Therapy = A type of training that helps individuals control bodily processes not normally under voluntary control Biofeedback training = A type of therapy that aims to remedy everyday behaviour problems Observational learning = A type of therapy that uses reinforcement to promote social skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding characteristics in the context of operant conditioning:

    <p>Punitive aggression = A type of aggression that can lead to modelling of aggression Learned Helplessness = A type of learning that occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Token Economies = A type of reinforcement schedule where reinforcement depends on the number of responses made Overmier and Seligman's experiment = A type of aggression that can lead to PTSD if the punishment is very aversive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding consequences in the context of operant conditioning:

    <p>Punitive aggression = Failed to learn to escape a situation despite having the opportunity to do so Token Economies = A type of reinforcement schedule where reinforcement depends on the number of responses made Overmier and Seligman's experiment = A type of learning that occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Seligman and Maier's experiment = A type of aggression that can lead to PTSD if the punishment is very aversive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding types of reinforcement in the context of operant conditioning:

    <p>Token Economies = A type of reinforcement that depends on the number of responses made Biofeedback training = A type of reinforcement that uses internal bodily processes to promote relaxation Observational learning = A type of reinforcement that occurs as a result of observing the experience of others Punitive aggression = A type of reinforcement that aims to reduce undesired behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their definitions:

    <p>Contiguity Theory = Associations are formed between stimuli presented together in time. Contingency Theory = A CR develops when the CS is able to predict the occurrence of the US. Conditioned Response = A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Predictability = The ability of an organism to recognise the likelihood of the US after a CS.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following theories with their descriptions:

    <p>Continguity Theory = When two stimuli are presented together in time, associations are formed between the two. Contingency Theory = A CR develops when the CS is able to predict the occurrence of the US. Classical Conditioning = About predicting future events, where CS prepares the animal for an imminent event. Association Learning = Forming associations between two previously unrelated stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their characteristics:

    <p>Conditioned Stimulus = A stimulus that elicits a conditioned response. Unconditioned Stimulus = A stimulus that naturally elicits a response. Conditioned Response = A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Unconditioned Response = A natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their explanations:

    <p>Predictability = The ability of an organism to recognise the likelihood of the US after a CS. Contingency = The probability that the US will occur given that the CS has just occurred. Association Learning = Forming associations between two previously unrelated stimuli. Classical Conditioning = About predicting future events, where CS prepares the animal for an imminent event.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following theories with their implications:

    <p>Continguity Theory = Temporal contiguity is sufficient for classical conditioning to occur. Contingency Theory = A CR develops when the CS is able to predict the occurrence of the US. Classical Conditioning = The CS sets up the expectation for the US and elicits the CR. Association Learning = Associations are formed between two previously unrelated stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their roles:

    <p>Conditioned Stimulus = Prepares the animal for an imminent event. Unconditioned Stimulus = Naturally elicits a response. Conditioned Response = Elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Unconditioned Response = A natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their characteristics:

    <p>Reliability of CS-US pairing = The probability that the US will occur given that the CS has just occurred. Uniqueness of CS-US pairing = The probability of the US occurring given that no CS has occurred. Continguity Theory = Associations are formed between stimuli presented together in time. Contingency Theory = A CR develops when the CS is able to predict the occurrence of the US.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their characteristics in Association Learning:

    <p>Conditioned Response = CS comes on first and overlaps with the US coming on. Delayed Conditioning = The CS does not predict the US very well. Simultaneous Conditioning = The CS predicts the US, but only if the gap isn't too large. Backward Conditioning = CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their descriptions in Contiguity Theory:

    <p>Predictability = The CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur. Contingency = The CS predicts the US, but only if the gap isn't too large. Association = The CS does not predict the US very well. Conditioning = CS comes on first and overlaps with the US coming on.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following reinforcement schedules with their characteristics:

    <p>Fixed Interval = Getting paid to work, you turn up each day, may be work hard may be not. Variable Interval = Pressing a button on a crossing (hoping the more you do it the quicker the reward/response will come) Fixed Ratio = Getting paid after doing a certain amount of work. Variable Ratio = Not mentioned.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their relationships in Contingency Theory:

    <p>CS-US = The CS predicts the US, but only if the gap isn't too large. US-CS = The CS does not predict the US very well. CS-Response = The CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur. Response-US = CS comes on first and overlaps with the US coming on.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their applications in Association Learning:

    <p>Conditioned Response = Learning about the CS in the four situations. Predictability = Not mentioned. Association = CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur. Contingency = Provides new information about the US.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following theories with their underlying principles:

    <p>Contiguity Theory = The CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur. Association Learning = The CS predicts the US, but only if the gap isn't too large. Contingency Theory = Provides new information about the US.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their descriptions in Classical Conditioning:

    <p>Conditioned Response = CS comes on first and overlaps with the US coming on. Unconditioned Response = Not mentioned. Conditioned Stimulus = The CS predicts the US, but only if the gap isn't too large. Unconditioned Stimulus = The CS does not predict the US very well.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following learning outcomes with their descriptions:

    <p>Acquisition of CR = Sequence of CS-US Presentation. Extinction = Not mentioned. Spontaneous Recovery = Provides new information about the US. Learning = CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to radical behaviourism, locating the cause for all human behaviour in the environment implies that humans have free will.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In classical conditioning, the association between two stimuli is established through contiguity.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Predictability is a critical factor in operant conditioning, but not in classical conditioning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A conditioned response is a natural response to a stimulus that is learned through experience.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Association learning is a type of learning that involves the formation of associations between stimuli and responses.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus always precedes the unconditioned stimulus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The contiguity theory suggests that the closer in time two events occur, the stronger the association between them will be.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Classical conditioning is a type of learning that involves the association of two previously unrelated responses.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Simple learning usually involves a conscious decision to learn.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Edward Thorndike discovered the law of contiguity, which states that a behaviour will be repeated if followed by a positive consequence.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Shaping is a process of incremental reinforcement, where an animal learns to perform a complex action through small steps.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    General learning always involves a specific consequence for a specific action.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Biological systems involved in simple learning are often voluntary responses.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Skinner expanded on Thorndike's work by discovering the law of contiguity.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Simple learning can result in long-term changes to behaviour.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    General learning can be specific to one biological system or apply to multiple systems.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Social facilitation is a type of observational learning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True imitation involves duplicating a novel behavior to achieve a specific goal, with understanding of the behavior.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory proposes that we learn primarily through trial-anderror.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Local or stimulus enhancement involves mimicking the actions of a model.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Observational learning involves four processes: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation through reinforcement.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Children are more likely to imitate someone they perceive as different from themselves.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Vicarious reinforcement is necessary for observational learning to occur.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Aggressive male models are less likely to be imitated than aggressive female models.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Habituation is a type of learning that tends to be specific to multiple biological systems.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sensitization occurs when our response to an event decreases with repeated exposure.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Simple learning is a type of learning that usually lasts long.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Habituation is a natural response to repeated loud noises, resulting in a decrease in the tendency to respond.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Simple learning is usually voluntary.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Biological systems involved in simple learning are often controlled by reflexes.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The change in behaviour in simple learning is usually of a very general form.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Habituation and sensitisation are natural responses to novel events.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The strength of the conditioned stimulus has a significant impact on the conditioned response.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The number of CS-US pairings can lead to a response ceiling, where further conditioning is no longer possible.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The opponent-process theory of emotion suggests that experiencing one emotion can temporarily inhibit the other emotion.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary affective response habituates with repeated exposure to the stimulus, according to the a-process.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Conditioned taste aversion is an example of a weak conditioned response.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The contiguity theory suggests that the association between the CS and US is based on the predictability of the US.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The conditioned response can be inhibited if the learner recognizes the CS as a signal that the US is over and won't be coming again.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The association between the CS and US is strengthened by the number of times the CS is paired with the US, according to Pavlov.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of true imitation?

    <p>Imitation of a novel behaviour pattern in order to achieve a specific goal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary process involved in observational learning?

    <p>Attention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key feature of the model in social learning theory?

    <p>Aggressive male models are more likely to be imitated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of local or stimulus enhancement in social learning?

    <p>The learner attends to the object of the model's behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of social facilitation?

    <p>One's behaviour prompts similar behaviour of another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of reinforcement in observational learning?

    <p>To reinforce the learner's behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary outcome of observational learning?

    <p>The learner imitates the model's behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between true imitation and social facilitation?

    <p>True imitation involves novel behaviour, while social facilitation involves already learned behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of simple learning?

    <p>It is a type of involuntary learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of an action that is followed by a positive consequence in Thorndike's law?

    <p>The action becomes more likely to occur in the future</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of shaping in operant conditioning?

    <p>To establish a complex behavior through incremental steps</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between simple learning and general learning?

    <p>Simple learning is specific to one biological system while general learning involves multiple biological systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of biological systems in simple learning?

    <p>They are involved in simple learning and often reflexes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of intense learning?

    <p>It is equivalent to sensitization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of Edward Thorndike's experiment with cats?

    <p>To demonstrate the action-consequence relationship</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the learning process described by Thorndike?

    <p>It is a type of operant conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fundamental difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

    <p>One is based on the action-consequence relationship, while the other is based on the event-consequence relationship.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

    <p>To associate with the conditioned stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of learning a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli?

    <p>Classical conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?

    <p>One involves the presentation of a stimulus, while the other involves the removal of a stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the learning process that involves the ability to generate an idea, test it, and refine it?

    <p>Think, Test, Revise</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a biologically salient consequence?

    <p>It is a pleasant or unpleasant stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning in terms of the direction of the association?

    <p>Classical conditioning involves the association of an event with a consequence, while operant conditioning involves the association of a consequence with an event.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

    <p>To associate with the unconditioned stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that influences the strength of the conditioned response?

    <p>The strength of the US</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of repeated exposure to the stimulus in the Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion?

    <p>The primary affective response habituates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the conditioned response in associative learning?

    <p>It is a response to the CS that is paired with the US</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the CS in associative learning?

    <p>It is a conditioned stimulus that predicts the US</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of the habituation process in associative learning?

    <p>The response to the CS decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the a-process and the b-process in the Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion?

    <p>The a-process is the initial emotional response, while the b-process is the emotional after-reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of the number of CS-US pairings on the conditioned response?

    <p>It increases the conditioned response up to a point</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the US in associative learning?

    <p>It is an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of habituation in simple learning?

    <p>Decreased response to repeated stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines whether repetition of a stimulus results in habituation or sensitization?

    <p>Intensity of the stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of repeated exposure to a mild stimulus in simple learning?

    <p>Habituation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between habituation and sensitization?

    <p>Habituation results in decreased response, while sensitization results in increased response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of biological systems in simple learning?

    <p>They are involved in simple learning, often as reflexes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of simple learning in terms of the change in behavior?

    <p>The change in behavior is short-term and specific</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between habituation and sensitization?

    <p>They are complementary processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of habituation in simple learning?

    <p>To decrease response to familiar stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Operant Conditioning

    • Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behavior is modified by its consequences.
    • Reinforcement is a key concept in operant conditioning, where a response is followed by a pleasant stimulus, increasing the likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future.

    Schedules of Reinforcement

    • Fixed Ratio (FR): reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
    • Variable Ratio (VR): reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
    • Fixed Interval (FI): reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
    • Variable Internal (VI): reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

    Motivated Behaviours

    • Primary reinforcers: innate, biological, and essential for survival (e.g., food, water, sex).
    • Secondary reinforcers: acquired through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, grades).

    The Premack Principle

    • Using a desired or high-frequency behavior to reinforce a less desirable or lower-frequency behavior.

    Issues of Punishment

    • Punishment does not usually result in long-term behavioral change, and effects are often temporary.
    • Punishment does not promote better behavior, and may lead to escape behavior or fear of the administrator.
    • Punishment may not undo existing rewards for the behavior unless it is delivered consistently.

    Punishment Types

    • Positive Punishment: presentation of an aversive stimulus after a behavior.
    • Negative Punishment: removal of a pleasant stimulus after a behavior.

    Reinforcement Types

    • Positive Reinforcement: presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behavior.
    • Negative Reinforcement: removal of an aversive stimulus after a behavior.

    Discriminative Stimuli

    • In classical conditioning, they elicit autonomic responses (i.e., involuntary reflexes).
    • In operant conditioning, they inform us when to emit a voluntary response.

    Acquiring Complex Behaviours

    • Shaping: a procedure in which reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response.

    Applications of Operant Conditioning

    • Behavioural Therapy: token economies, remedial education, therapy for autism, training dogs, and biofeedback.
    • Observational Learning: learning by watching others, also known as vicarious conditioning or behavioral contagion.

    Variables that Affect Operant Conditioning

    • Reinforcer Magnitude: the larger the reward, the faster the acquisition of learning.
    • Delay of Reward: the greater the delay, the weaker the learning.
    • Frequency of Reinforcement: the response must always be reinforced when it is a new response.
    • Reinforcement Contingencies: timing and schedules of reinforcement affect learning.

    Specialized Learning

    • Some forms of specialized learning are restricted to certain species, such as insight, imitation, and language learning.
    • Think, Test, Revise (cognition) is a skill that is perhaps restricted to a limited number of species.

    Classical Conditioning

    • Rescorla disagreed with Pavlov on what makes the CS a useful predictor of the US, proposing that contingency (the relationship between two events) is key, not just the number of CS-US pairings.
    • Contingency refers to the relationship between two events, one being a consequence of the other.
    • Rescorla conceptualized classical conditioning as involving the acquisition of information about the relationship among events in the environment.
    • Contingency can predict the presence or absence of the US.

    Contingency and Classical Conditioning

    • Excitatory conditioning: likelihood of something occurring given that something else did.
    • Inhibitory conditioning: likelihood of something NOT occurring given that something else did.
    • The Effect of Contingency on Classical Conditioning: contingency affects the extent of classical conditioning.

    Higher-Order Conditioning

    • Two factors determine the extent of higher-order conditioning:
      • Similarity between the higher-order stimulus and the original conditioned stimulus.
      • Frequency and consistency of pairing the two conditioned stimuli.

    Classical Conditioning and Prediction

    • Classical conditioning is about predicting future events.
    • The CS prepares the animal/person for an imminent event, sets up the expectation for that event, and elicits the CR.
    • The CS must be a predictor of the imminent arrival of the US.
    • Predictions are indicative of the organism being able to recognize the likelihood of the US (after a CS).

    Contiguity Theory and Contingency Theory

    • Contiguity theory: associations are formed between two stimuli when they are presented together in time.
    • Contingency theory: a CR develops when the CS is able to predict the occurrence of the US.
    • Contingency theory relies heavily on predictability and expectation.

    Applications of Operant Conditioning

    • Behavioral Therapy: token economies, remedial education, therapy for autism, training dogs, and biofeedback.
    • Observational Learning: learning by watching others, also known as vicarious conditioning or behavioral contagion.

    Variables that Affect Operant Conditioning

    • Reinforcer Magnitude: larger rewards lead to faster acquisition of learning.
    • Delay of Reward: the greater the delay, the weaker the learning.
    • Frequency of Reinforcement: continuous reinforcement ensures the desired response occurs each time.
    • Reinforcement Contingencies:
      • Schedules of Reinforcement: ratio schedules, fixed ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval.

    Learning Types

    • Simple learning: usually involuntary, involves biological systems and reflexes, does not last long, and is specific to one biological system
    • General learning: involves action-consequence, discovered by Edward Thorndike
    • Specialised learning: restricted to certain species, includes forms like insight, imitation, and language learning

    Conditioning

    • Classical Conditioning: learning a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli, discovered by Ivan Pavlov
    • Operant Conditioning: consequence learning, also known as instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning, discovered by B.F. Skinner
    • Consequences: biologically salient, can be pleasant or unpleasant, and influence behaviour
    • Reinforcement: presenting a pleasant consequence or removing an unpleasant one
    • Punishment: presenting an unpleasant consequence or removing a pleasant one

    Classical Conditioning

    • Event → consequence
    • Simple learning tends to be specific to one biological system
    • Conditioning can be intense or sensitisation
    • Habituation: decline in response to a familiar stimulus
    • Sensitisation: increased response to a repeated stimulus

    Social Learning

    • Social Facilitation: one's behaviour prompts similar behaviour in another
    • Local or Stimulus Enhancement: behaviour directs attention to an object
    • True Imitation: duplicating a novel behaviour to achieve a specific goal
    • Observational Learning Processes: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
    • Social Learning Theory: formation of a symbolic representation through vicarious reinforcement
    • Key Features of the Model: appropriateness, similarity, and reinforcement

    Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion

    • When experiencing one emotion, the other is temporarily inhibited
    • With repeated stimulus, the initial emotion becomes weaker, and the opposing emotion intensifies
    • Emotional after-reaction: an emotional stimulus creates an initial response, followed by adaptation, then opposite response

    Learning Types

    • Simple learning: usually involuntary, involves biological systems and reflexes, does not last long, and is specific to one biological system
    • General learning: involves action-consequence, discovered by Edward Thorndike
    • Specialised learning: restricted to certain species, includes forms like insight, imitation, and language learning

    Conditioning

    • Classical Conditioning: learning a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli, discovered by Ivan Pavlov
    • Operant Conditioning: consequence learning, also known as instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning, discovered by B.F. Skinner
    • Consequences: biologically salient, can be pleasant or unpleasant, and influence behaviour
    • Reinforcement: presenting a pleasant consequence or removing an unpleasant one
    • Punishment: presenting an unpleasant consequence or removing a pleasant one

    Classical Conditioning

    • Event → consequence
    • Simple learning tends to be specific to one biological system
    • Conditioning can be intense or sensitisation
    • Habituation: decline in response to a familiar stimulus
    • Sensitisation: increased response to a repeated stimulus

    Social Learning

    • Social Facilitation: one's behaviour prompts similar behaviour in another
    • Local or Stimulus Enhancement: behaviour directs attention to an object
    • True Imitation: duplicating a novel behaviour to achieve a specific goal
    • Observational Learning Processes: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
    • Social Learning Theory: formation of a symbolic representation through vicarious reinforcement
    • Key Features of the Model: appropriateness, similarity, and reinforcement

    Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion

    • When experiencing one emotion, the other is temporarily inhibited
    • With repeated stimulus, the initial emotion becomes weaker, and the opposing emotion intensifies
    • Emotional after-reaction: an emotional stimulus creates an initial response, followed by adaptation, then opposite response

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