Psychology Chapter on Conditioning and Reinforcement

A neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response. This occurs after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally triggers a specific response.

A learned response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus (CS) after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

The innate, natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus. Happens without prior learning.

A stimulus that naturally triggers a specific, innate response without prior learning.

A neutral stimulus that initially doesn't elicit a specific response, before being paired with a UCS to become a CS.

Learning process that involves forming associations between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus, triggering a conditioned response.

This involves increasing or decreasing a behavior by pairing it with consequences.

Learning without direct reward or punishment. It's knowledge acquired through observation or experience, even if not immediately demonstrated.

A reinforcement schedule where the time between reinforcements is unpredictable, but averages out to a specific interval.

The average time interval between reinforcements in a VI schedule.

The actual time between reinforcements in a VI schedule can vary randomly around the average interval.

The reinforcement is provided after a response is made, following the varying interval in a VI Schedule.

The average ratio of reinforcement in a VI schedule is often 10, meaning on average, a response will be reinforced after 10 intervals.

A cognitive map is a mental representation of the layout of a physical space. It allows an individual to understand their surroundings and navigate them efficiently.

Observational learning is learning through observing others. It's how we pick up new skills, behaviors, and information by watching other people.

Mirror neurons are brain cells that activate both when we perform a specific action and when we observe someone else performing the same action. They play a key role in observational learning and empathy.

Instinctive drift is the tendency for an animal to revert back to innate behaviors, even after learning a new behavior through conditioning.

A schedule of reinforcement is a pattern of delivering reinforcement, or rewards, after a particular behavior.

A continuous reinforcement schedule is a type of reinforcement where a behavior is rewarded every time it occurs.

A partial reinforcement schedule is a type of reinforcement where a behavior is only rewarded some of the time.

A fixed-ratio schedule is a type of partial reinforcement where a reward is given after a specific, fixed number of responses.

A variable-ratio schedule is a type of partial reinforcement where a reward is given after an average number of responses, but the exact number varies randomly.

A fixed-interval schedule is a type of partial reinforcement where a reward is given after a specific, fixed amount of time has passed, regardless of how many responses occur during that interval.

Preparedness is a biological predisposition to learn some associations more readily than others. It is influenced by evolutionary history. For example, we are naturally prepared to fear snakes but not flowers, due to their potential danger.

Fixed-ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a set number of responses. Example: Giving a dog a treat after 5 times of sitting on command.

Variable-ratio (VR): Reinforcement after an average number of responses, but the exact number varies randomly. Example: A slot machine that delivers wins after an unpredictable number of pulls.

Fixed-interval (FI): Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has elapsed. Example: Getting paid every two weeks, regardless of how much work has been done during that time.

A therapeutic approach where individuals are hypnotized and guided to relive past lives, aiming to uncover the roots of present-day psychological and physical issues.

A theory explaining the impact of social expectations, attitudes, and beliefs on hypnotic experiences and outcomes. It suggests that people's motivations and readiness to be hypnotized influence their responses.

A theory explaining hypnosis as a state of separation between the conscious and subconscious mind. This separation allows for access to hidden memories and thoughts, possibly influencing behavior and perception.

A type of drug that alters perception, mood, and thought processes dramatically, often causing hallucinations. These drugs affect various aspects of brain function, leading to altered states of consciousness.

Hypnosis can be used to help people reach a state of deep relaxation, which can alleviate pain and improve sleep quality. Certain methods of hypnosis can induce sleep-like states, where the body becomes deeply relaxed, allowing for relief from pain and discomfort.

Damage to specific areas of the forebrain, particularly those involved in REM sleep and dreaming, can disrupt or eliminate dreaming altogether, illustrating the crucial role of these brain regions in dream generation.

Hypnosis is a technique where a person is guided into a state of heightened suggestibility and focus. This state can be used to alter perceptions, behaviors, and emotional responses. Hypnosis, however, does not make people act against their will. It creates a state of openness and collaboration that allows for change and improved self-management.

Unconscious aspects of the mind are thought to be accessible during hypnosis. This allows individuals to uncover hidden memories, repressed emotions, and subconscious patterns of behavior. Through hypnotic suggestions and guidance, people can gain insights into these otherwise inaccessible parts of their mind.

A 20,000 neuron network in the hypothalamus that controls our internal clock, regulating sleep, hunger, and other biological processes.

A sleep stage characterized by a decrease in brain activity (50% less), theta waves, and hypnagogic imagery.

A sleep stage marked by K-complexes and sleep spindles, representing deeper relaxation with electrical bursts of activity.

The deepest sleep stage characterized by slow delta waves, muscle relaxation, and a decreased metabolic rate.

The final stage of sleep, marked by rapid eye movements (REM), muscle paralysis, and vivid dreaming.

A theory proposing that dreams are a reflection of random neural activity in the brain during sleep.

The process of making connections between fragmented information during sleep.

A state of heightened suggestibility and responsiveness to external suggestions, often used for therapeutic or entertainment purposes.

A hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

A state of mind characterized by a subjective experience of awareness, thought, and emotion.

The tendency for individuals to experience more REM sleep after being deprived of it.

Hallucinations, often vivid and bizarre, that occur during sleep stage 1.

The sleep-promoting hormone that increases at night and decreases during the day, making you feel sleepy.

A state of heightened receptivity to suggestions, often used for therapeutic or entertainment purposes.

The tendency for individuals to experience more REM sleep after being deprived of it.

The extent to which we can generalize findings into real-world settings.

The extent to which we can draw cause and effect inferences from a study.

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that helps us streamline our thinking.

A variable that an experimenter measures to see whether the manipulation has had an effect.

The average prevalence of a characteristic or behaviour in the general population.

The consistency of a measurement.

A procedure that ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate.

Cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher's hypothesis.

A statistical method that helps researchers interpret large bodies of psychological literature.

Randomly sorting participants into groups to control for potential confounding variables.

In an experiment, researchers assign different groups to the control or experimental condition.

In an experiment, the group that doesn't receive the manipulation.

In an experiment, the group that receives the manipulation.

Research design that examines one person or a small number of people in depth over an extended period of time.

A variable that an experimenter manipulates to see whether it has an effect on the dependent variable.

A neutral object that becomes associated with a primary reinforcer through repeated pairings, acquiring the ability to motivate behavior.

A principle stating that a behavior followed by a reward is more likely to be repeated.

A mental representation of a physical space, allowing individuals to navigate and understand their surroundings.

A schedule of reinforcement where rewards are given after a set number of responses.

The tendency for an individual to revert back to innate behaviors, even after learning new ones.

A method of training a target behavior by reinforcing successive approximations.

Learning that occurs through observing and imitating the behaviors of others.

A type of learning where a behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time has passed, regardless of how many responses have occurred.

A type of learning where a behavior is reinforced (rewarded) after a specific amount of time has passed, but the time interval varies randomly.

A type of learning where a behavior is strengthened or weakened based on the probability of the behavior occurring.

The phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it.

Organizing information into meaningful groupings, allowing us to extend the span of short-term memory.

The depth at which we transform information influences how easily we remember it.

Our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or quickly after we've encountered similar stimuli.

Interference with the acquisition of new information due to previous learning of information.

The gradual strengthening of the connections between neurons, making it more likely that those neurons will be reactivated in the future.

A hint that makes it easier to retrieve a memory.

The retention of information over time.

The tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list, especially well.

The tendency to remember words at the end of a list, especially well.

A learning aid or strategy that helps improve recall.

A type of amnesia where a person loses memories from their past. They still remember things before the amnesia, but can't recall anything after the triggering event.

The ability to recall information from our memory is affected by the time it was last accessed. This is how the process of forgetting happens.

The span of short-term memory, according to George Miller, is about 7 plus or minus 2 items of information.

A graph that shows the effect of both primacy and recency on our ability to recall items on a list.

A false but subjectively compelling memory. It is a type of memory distortion.

A hormone produced by fat cells that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase energy expenditure.

A theory proposing that an emotion-provoking event leads simultaneously to an emotional experience and to bodily reactions.

A range of body and muscle mass that our bodies tend to maintain.

A theory that suggests that when our blood glucose levels drop, hunger emerges, driving us to eat to restore the proper glucose level.

A phase in the human sexual response in which sexual tension builds.

A lie detector test that relies on the premise that criminals harbour concealed knowledge about the crime that innocent people don't.

A theory proposing that we must satisfy physiological needs and needs for safety and security before progressing to more complex needs.

A type of emotional response in which people experience sexual pleasure and notice physiological changes associated with it.

Tendency to remember positive information more than negative information with age.

A theory stating that the desire for rewards and positive outcomes motivates behavior.

This refers to the process by which conditioned stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to the original conditioned stimulus can also trigger the conditioned response.

This is the weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

A theory proposing that emotions arise from a combination of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of the situation. It suggests that we experience physiological changes (like racing heart or sweating) and then interpret those changes based on the context to determine the emotion.

A state of intense longing and desire for a romantic partner, characterized by powerful feelings, and a desire for closeness and connection.

The scientific study of how people use personal space to communicate and interact.

A mental state or feeling associated with our evaluation of our experiences. They are often accompanied by physiological and behavioral changes.

The tendency for our moods to adapt to external circumstances, returning to a baseline level of happiness even after significant positive or negative events.

A condition characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by purging behaviors, such as self-induced vomiting, excessive exercise, or laxative use.

The intense, involuntary muscle contractions in the genitals during the climax of a sexual response.

A theory explaining the connection between facial expressions and emotional experiences. It suggests that the changes in our facial muscles can actually contribute to the feeling of an emotion.

A rule of give and take in relationships, suggesting that balanced reciprocity contributes to attraction and strengthens bonds.

The state of balance or equilibrium in our internal systems, such as temperature, blood sugar, and hydration. It's about maintaining stability.

A theory proposing that obese individuals may be more motivated to eat by external cues such as food smells or advertising rather than internal cues like hunger.

The belief that positive moods and good experiences tend to last longer than negative ones.

A type of learning where a behavior is reinforced (rewarded) after a specific amount of time has passed, but the time interval varies randomly.

A method of training a target behavior by reinforcing successive approximations.

A neutral object that becomes associated with a primary reinforcer through repeated pairings, acquiring the ability to motivate behavior.

A principle stating that a behavior followed by a reward is more likely to be repeated.

This is a pattern of delivering reinforcement (rewards) after a specific behavior occurs, influencing how frequently that behavior is repeated.

A type of schedule where a behavior is rewarded every single time it occurs, leading to quick learning but potentially less lasting effects.

A type of reinforcement where a behavior is only sometimes rewarded, making learning slower but resulting in longer-lasting behavior.

Here, a reward is given after an average, but varying number of responses. The 'average' is consistent, but the exact number of responses between rewards is unpredictable. Example: Receiving a prize in a game after an unpredictable number of tries.

The capacity of the nervous system to change and adapt in response to experience. It allows for learning, memory formation, and brain rewiring.

Our genetic makeup, which influences our physical and psychological characteristics.

The act of removing neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft, preventing constant stimulation.

The electrical charge difference across the neuronal membrane when the neuron is not being stimulated. This is the resting state.

A type of study in which researchers examine how traits differ in individuals raised apart from their biological relatives.

A protective covering around axons made of glial cells that insulates and speeds up the transmission of signals.

A structure in the brain that plays a role in spatial memory and the formation of new memories.

Cognitive function that relies more on one side of the brain than the other.

A surgical procedure that severs the corpus callosum, the band of fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres.

A type of gene that is only expressed in the absence of a dominant gene.

The part of the nervous system that controls involuntary actions like breathing, heart rate, and digestion.

A type of neuron that transmits messages from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, controlling voluntary movement.

The part of the brain that connects the cortex with the cerebellum, controlling sleep, breathing, and other vital functions.

The part of the nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord that transmits signals between the central nervous system and the body.

A process of creating new neurons in the brain.