Khan p 200-210 Psychology Chapter on Operant Conditioning
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Questions and Answers

What characterizes variable-interval reinforcement in operant conditioning?

  • Responses are reinforced based on the number of actions performed.
  • Responses are reinforced only after a specific event occurs.
  • Responses are reinforced after a fixed time period.
  • Responses are reinforced after variable amounts of time. (correct)

Which of the following is an innate behavior?

  • A bird singing at dawn. (correct)
  • Learning to avoid a hot surface after being burned.
  • A rat navigating a maze.
  • A baby crying for attention.

What is classified as habituation in learned behaviors?

  • Gradually becoming less responsive to a repeated stimulus. (correct)
  • Associating a particular smell with a painful experience.
  • Automatically flinching at loud noises.
  • Solving a problem using previously acquired knowledge.

In classical conditioning, what is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

<p>The stimulus that is paired with a conditioned stimulus. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes insight learning?

<p>Solving a problem by recalling past experiences. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is NOT part of the elaboration likelihood model?

<p>Content characteristics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key factor influencing whether a listener will process information through the central route?

<p>Listener’s interest in the topic (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does peripheral processing typically focus on?

<p>Superficial characteristics of the message (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a target characteristic in the elaboration likelihood model?

<p>Listener's self-esteem (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which stage involves filtering information based on listener characteristics such as motivation and interest?

<p>Pre-Processing Stage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what scenario would a listener be more likely to utilize central processing?

<p>When the topic is personally relevant (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a situation suitable for peripheral processing?

<p>A casual event where the audience is uninterested (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the source characteristics include in the elaboration likelihood model?

<p>The venue where the information is presented (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What outcome occurs when rats associate sweet water with sickness?

<p>They avoid the sweet water. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the experiments, how do rats respond to a situation where tap water has a beep and light after experiencing shocks?

<p>They show no aversion to any type of water. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of phobias are more likely to be developed according to evolutionary advantages?

<p>Phobias related to ancient dangers faced by ancestors. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What influences the rate at which adaptive associations are learned?

<p>Biological value of the association. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does behavior influence attitude in the context of learning?

<p>Behavior can alter attitudes through reinforcement. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of conditioning is suggested to be insufficient on its own for explaining all learning processes?

<p>Classical conditioning. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of persuasion in the context of attitude and behavior change?

<p>It is a method for influencing attitude and behavior. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios indicates that a rat will avoid sweet water after experiencing sickness?

<p>Sickness is linked to the sweet water alone. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of continuous reinforcement?

<p>Reinforcement occurs after every individual behavior. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following examples best illustrates fixed-ratio reinforcement?

<p>A factory worker is paid for every 10 items produced. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes variable-ratio reinforcement from fixed-ratio reinforcement?

<p>The number of responses required to earn a reward varies. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule of reinforcement is likely to result in the highest response rate?

<p>Variable-Ratio. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is partial reinforcement more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement?

<p>Because the rewards are unpredictable. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of fixed-interval reinforcement?

<p>An employee receives a paycheck at the end of every two weeks. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of shaping behavior, what does 'successive reinforcement of approximations' refer to?

<p>Reinforcing a behavior that is similar but not identical to the target behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best exemplifies a variable-interval schedule of reinforcement?

<p>A waiter receives tips based on customer satisfaction at unpredictable times. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of processing leads to a lasting change in attitude?

<p>Central processing (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component is NOT part of reciprocal determinism?

<p>Social context (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who developed the Social-Cognitive Theory?

<p>Bandura (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Social-Cognitive Theory, what does 'cognition' refer to?

<p>The personal beliefs and attitudes of an individual (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'internal locus of control'?

<p>The perception that one can influence their own fate (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario illustrates cognition influencing behavior and environment?

<p>Becoming interested in soccer after spending time with soccer players (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does perceived behavior control influence personal outcomes?

<p>It allows individuals to act on their intentions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of individuals with an external locus of control?

<p>They often face higher anxiety and depression (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept explains the phenomenon where uncontrollable bad events lead to a perceived lack of control?

<p>Learned helplessness (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one possible negative outcome of excessive choices presented to individuals?

<p>Decision paralysis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best illustrates the concept of 'tyranny of choice'?

<p>Having to pick one item from a selection of 30 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of self-control?

<p>Delaying gratification for long-term goals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the marshmallow test experiment, what outcome was particularly noted in children who demonstrated self-control?

<p>Better overall life outcomes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the overwhelming situation where individuals have too much information to process effectively?

<p>Information overload (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which behavior is an example of a temptation that challenges self-control?

<p>Watching TV instead of studying for a test (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can giving people control over minor aspects of their daily environment impact their well-being?

<p>It can improve health and well-being. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

A schedule of reinforcement where a reward is given after a fixed number of responses. This encourages rapid responding, as the learner knows exactly how many responses are needed for the reward.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

A schedule of reinforcement where a reward is given after a fixed amount of time has passed, regardless of the number of responses. This leads to slower responding, as the learner knows the reward is coming regardless of the number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

A schedule of reinforcement where a reward is given after an average number of responses, but the exact number varies each time. This leads to high and consistent responding, as the learner never knows when the reward will come.

Variable-Interval Schedule

A schedule of reinforcement where a reward is given after an average amount of time, but the exact time varies each time. This also leads to high and consistent responding, as the learner never knows when the reward will come.

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Shaping

A process where a complex behavior is learned through rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior. This can be used to teach animals or humans new skills.

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Continuous Reinforcement

A schedule where a reward is given after every response. This leads to fast learning but can also lead to extinction if the reward is removed.

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Extinction

The tendency for a learned behavior to decrease or disappear if it is no longer rewarded.

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Partial Reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement where a reward is only given sometimes, rather than every time. This leads to more persistent learning and more resistance to extinction.

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Innate Behavior

An innate behavior that is performed correctly the first time in response to a stimulus. It's a natural behavior that the organism possesses.

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Reflex

A simple innate behavior that triggers a response to a specific stimulus. An automatic response to a stimulus, quick and involuntary.

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Taxis

A simple innate behavior where an organism moves towards or away from a stimulus. It has a clear purpose; it's a purposeful movement.

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Kinesis

A simple innate behavior where an organism moves randomly in different directions. It doesn't demonstrate a clear purpose.

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Fixed Action Pattern

A complex innate behavior that is a predictable sequence of actions carried out in response to a specific stimulus.

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Conditioned Aversion

A learned association between a neutral stimulus (e.g., sweet water) and a negative consequence (e.g., illness) that leads to avoidance of the neutral stimulus.

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Adaptive Associations

The tendency for individuals to form stronger associations with stimuli that have a biological significance (e.g., fear of snakes, heights) compared to stimuli that are less relevant to survival.

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Biologically-Influenced Learning

Learning is not purely based on classical or operant conditioning but also shaped by biological factors. Our evolutionary history plays a role in the associations we are more susceptible to learn.

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Phobias: Biological Influence

Phobias are not just learned fears but also influenced by our biological predisposition to fear things that were dangerous to our ancestors.

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Persuasion

The process of changing an individual's attitude or behavior through communication or influence.

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Elaboration Likelihood Model

The Elaboration Likelihood Model explains how persuasion works by suggesting that there are two main paths to persuasion.

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Central Route

A route to persuasion when individuals carefully consider the message and its arguments, leading to long-lasting attitude change.

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Peripheral Route

A route to persuasion based on superficial cues like source credibility or attractiveness, leading to temporary attitude change.

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Message Characteristics

Characteristics of the message itself that influence persuasion, including clarity, logic, organization, and overall quality.

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Source Characteristics

Characteristics of the speaker that influence persuasion, including their credibility, expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. Also includes the environment of the message.

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Target Characteristics

Characteristics of the audience that influence persuasion, including their interest, motivation, importance, intelligence, and self-esteem.

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Pre-Processing Stage

The pre-processing stage in the Elaboration Likelihood Model where information is first filtered based on the listener's interest, motivation, and importance.

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Processing Stage

The processing stage in the Elaboration Likelihood Model where information is deeply analyzed through the central route, or superficially analyzed through the peripheral route.

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Learned helplessness

A phenomenon where individuals exposed to uncontrollable negative events develop a perception of lacking control in general, leading to passive behavior in future situations.

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Tyranny of choice

The negative impact on cognition and behavior brought on by an overwhelming number of choices.

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Decision paralysis

The inability to make a decision due to an overwhelming amount of information.

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Increased regret

The feeling of regret after making a choice from an extensive selection.

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Self-control

The capacity to control impulses and delay gratification.

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Desires

Motivations associated with pleasure or relief from displeasure.

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Temptation

When a desire conflicts with values or long-term goals.

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Marshmallow test

A famous experiment where preschoolers demonstrate self-control by delaying eating a marshmallow for a larger reward.

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Reciprocal Determinism

A theory that proposes that a person's behavior is influenced by the interaction of three factors: personal factors (e.g., beliefs, skills), environmental factors (e.g., social situations, rewards), and behavior itself. These factors influence each other in a continuous cycle.

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Internal Locus of Control

The belief that one has control over their own fate. People with a strong internal locus of control believe that their actions and decisions determine their outcomes.

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External Locus of Control

The belief that outside forces control one's fate. People with a strong external locus of control often feel powerless to influence their outcomes.

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Perceived Behavior Control

The extent to which individuals believe they can successfully perform a given behavior. It is influenced by personal factors like skills and beliefs and by environmental factors like resources and support.

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Central Processing

A cognitive process that results in a lasting change in attitude. It involves careful consideration of the information presented and its implications.

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Peripheral Processing

A cognitive process that leads to a temporary change in attitude. It relies on superficial cues, such as source credibility or attractiveness, rather than on thoughtful evaluation of the information.

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Study Notes

Shaping

  • To teach a complex task (e.g., spinning in a circle and pressing a button), reward successive approximations of the desired behavior over time.
  • Initially, reward small improvements, then gradually increase the complexity of behaviors required for a reward.

Operant Conditioning: Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Behaviors are reinforced only some of the time. These are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement.
  • Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs after every desired behavior. This becomes less effective over time, requiring ulterior reinforcement strategies.
  • Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses (e.g., bonus for every 5 cars sold). Leads to a consistent, fast response rate.
  • Fixed Interval: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time (e.g., paycheck every two weeks). Results in a slower, less consistent response rate.
  • Variable Ratio: Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses (e.g., slot machine). Leads to a very high and consistent response rate.
  • Variable Interval: Reinforcement occurs after a varying amount of time (e.g., pop quiz). Results in a moderate and consistent response rate.

Operant Conditioning: Innate vs. Learned Behaviours

  • Innate Behaviors (Instincts): Behaviors performed correctly the first time in response to a stimulus.
  • Simple Innate Behaviors: Reflexes (squinting, blinking), taxis (movement towards or away from stimulus), kinesis (random movement).
  • Complex Innate Behaviors: Fixed action patterns (mating dances), migration, circadian rhythms.
  • Learned Behaviors: Behaviors acquired through experience.
  • Habituation: Decreased response to a repeated stimulus.
  • Sensitization: Increased response to a repeated stimulus.
  • Classical Conditioning: Associating one stimulus with another to elicit a learned response (e.g., fear response triggered by a fire alarm).
  • Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences of behavior.

Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change

  • Persuasion: Methods used to change attitudes and behaviors.
  • Elaboration Likelihood Model: Explains how attitudes are formed, and how likely they are to be changed.
    • Central Route: Occurs when people are motivated and able to think critically about arguments.
    • Peripheral Route: Occurs when people are not motivated or unable to think critically.

Social-Cognitive Theory

  • Reciprocal determinism: suggests behavior, personal factors (cognitive or motivational), and environment influence one another.
  • Observational learning: learning through observing and imitating others.
  • Bobo Doll Experiment: Demonstrates observational learning of aggression.

Personal Control

  • Locus of Control: Internal locus believes they control their fate, while external believes outside forces control their fate.
  • Learned Helplessness: Results when repeated exposure to uncontrollable negative events leads to a perceived lack of control.
  • Tyranny of Choice: Too many choices can lead to decision paralysis and regret.

Self-Control

  • Self-Control: The ability to control impulses and delay immediate gratification for long-term goals.
  • Ego Depletion: The idea that self-control is a limited resource, and using it in one area reduces its availability for other areas.

Taste Aversion

  • A learned aversion to a particular taste that occurs after a negative experience.
  • The association between the taste stimulus and subsequent illness is learned quickly.

Non-Associative Learning

  • Habituation: Reduced response to repeated stimulus (e.g., getting used to background noise).
  • Sensitization: Increased response to repeated stimulus (e.g., increasing fear response with each instance of a loud noise).

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Description

Explore the concepts of shaping and schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning. This quiz will test your understanding of different reinforcement strategies and their effects on behavior over time. Hone your knowledge with practical examples and definitions to solidify your grasp of these foundational psychological theories.

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