Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary effect of negatively reinforcing students to attend class regularly?
What is the primary effect of negatively reinforcing students to attend class regularly?
How does positive punishment function in a workplace scenario?
How does positive punishment function in a workplace scenario?
What is the outcome when a teen girl has her phone taken away for not cleaning her room?
What is the outcome when a teen girl has her phone taken away for not cleaning her room?
In the context of operant conditioning, what is meant by the potential for punishment reducing disruptive behaviors?
In the context of operant conditioning, what is meant by the potential for punishment reducing disruptive behaviors?
Signup and view all the answers
What role do rewards play in influencing behavior according to operant conditioning?
What role do rewards play in influencing behavior according to operant conditioning?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary characteristic of continuous reinforcement?
What is the primary characteristic of continuous reinforcement?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of partial reinforcement is likely to produce the highest response rate?
Which type of partial reinforcement is likely to produce the highest response rate?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following describes a fixed-interval schedule?
Which of the following describes a fixed-interval schedule?
Signup and view all the answers
What happens to extinction rates when transitioning from continuous to partial reinforcement?
What happens to extinction rates when transitioning from continuous to partial reinforcement?
Signup and view all the answers
Which scenario exemplifies operant conditioning via positive reinforcement?
Which scenario exemplifies operant conditioning via positive reinforcement?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main purpose of transitioning to a partial reinforcement schedule after establishing a behavior?
What is the main purpose of transitioning to a partial reinforcement schedule after establishing a behavior?
Signup and view all the answers
What distinguishes variable-interval schedules from fixed-interval schedules?
What distinguishes variable-interval schedules from fixed-interval schedules?
Signup and view all the answers
How do fixed-ratio schedules typically impact response rates?
How do fixed-ratio schedules typically impact response rates?
Signup and view all the answers
Which stage of observational learning involves focusing on the model's behavior to grasp what they are doing?
Which stage of observational learning involves focusing on the model's behavior to grasp what they are doing?
Signup and view all the answers
What is necessary for an observer to successfully replicate a behavior demonstrated by a model?
What is necessary for an observer to successfully replicate a behavior demonstrated by a model?
Signup and view all the answers
Which factor is least likely to enhance an observer's attention to a model?
Which factor is least likely to enhance an observer's attention to a model?
Signup and view all the answers
After observing a behavior, what is the primary challenge if the observer cannot remember what they witnessed?
After observing a behavior, what is the primary challenge if the observer cannot remember what they witnessed?
Signup and view all the answers
In which stage of observational learning does an observer attempt to mimic a behavior they have witnessed?
In which stage of observational learning does an observer attempt to mimic a behavior they have witnessed?
Signup and view all the answers
What impact does observing a model being rewarded have on an observer's level of focus?
What impact does observing a model being rewarded have on an observer's level of focus?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best reflects a unique aspect of observational learning compared to simple imitation?
Which of the following best reflects a unique aspect of observational learning compared to simple imitation?
Signup and view all the answers
If an observer successfully recalls a model's behavior but does not attempt to replicate it, which stage are they likely struggling with?
If an observer successfully recalls a model's behavior but does not attempt to replicate it, which stage are they likely struggling with?
Signup and view all the answers
Which factor is less likely to increase the likelihood of a behavior being imitated?
Which factor is less likely to increase the likelihood of a behavior being imitated?
Signup and view all the answers
What potential impact does witnessing a model being punished have on an observer's motivation to imitate behavior?
What potential impact does witnessing a model being punished have on an observer's motivation to imitate behavior?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a key limiting factor in the effectiveness of observational learning in children?
What is a key limiting factor in the effectiveness of observational learning in children?
Signup and view all the answers
In which scenario is observational learning most likely to lead to a negative behavior outcome?
In which scenario is observational learning most likely to lead to a negative behavior outcome?
Signup and view all the answers
What is one significant conclusion from Bandura's research regarding factors that influence observational learning?
What is one significant conclusion from Bandura's research regarding factors that influence observational learning?
Signup and view all the answers
Which factor is NOT typically associated with increasing the likelihood of behavior imitation?
Which factor is NOT typically associated with increasing the likelihood of behavior imitation?
Signup and view all the answers
What has recent research indicated regarding the relationship between video game play and aggressive behavior?
What has recent research indicated regarding the relationship between video game play and aggressive behavior?
Signup and view all the answers
Which strategy best illustrates how observational learning can be used to minimize negative behaviors in a workplace setting?
Which strategy best illustrates how observational learning can be used to minimize negative behaviors in a workplace setting?
Signup and view all the answers
In what context is observational learning shown to be particularly influential?
In what context is observational learning shown to be particularly influential?
Signup and view all the answers
Which scenario exemplifies a positive outcome of observational learning?
Which scenario exemplifies a positive outcome of observational learning?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a key characteristic of children with ambivalent attachment?
What is a key characteristic of children with ambivalent attachment?
Signup and view all the answers
Which attachment style is associated with children who avoid seeking help from caregivers?
Which attachment style is associated with children who avoid seeking help from caregivers?
Signup and view all the answers
What primarily influences the development of secure attachment in children?
What primarily influences the development of secure attachment in children?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a consequence of disorganized attachment in children?
What is a consequence of disorganized attachment in children?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement best describes the long-term impact of secure attachment in early childhood?
Which statement best describes the long-term impact of secure attachment in early childhood?
Signup and view all the answers
How do children with avoidant attachment typically react to caregivers?
How do children with avoidant attachment typically react to caregivers?
Signup and view all the answers
What might cause a child to develop disorganized attachment?
What might cause a child to develop disorganized attachment?
Signup and view all the answers
In which context is ambivalent attachment most likely to arise?
In which context is ambivalent attachment most likely to arise?
Signup and view all the answers
What are common factors that may lead to the development of attachment disorders in children?
What are common factors that may lead to the development of attachment disorders in children?
Signup and view all the answers
Which characteristic distinguishes reactive attachment disorder (RAD) from disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED)?
Which characteristic distinguishes reactive attachment disorder (RAD) from disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED)?
Signup and view all the answers
Children adopted after the age of 6 months may be at risk for which of the following attachment-related issues?
Children adopted after the age of 6 months may be at risk for which of the following attachment-related issues?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a major consequence of reactive attachment disorder (RAD) in affected children?
What is a major consequence of reactive attachment disorder (RAD) in affected children?
Signup and view all the answers
Disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED) primarily results from a lack of which of the following?
Disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED) primarily results from a lack of which of the following?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Rotter's empirical law of effect state regarding human behavior?
What does Rotter's empirical law of effect state regarding human behavior?
Signup and view all the answers
Which variable is NOT considered in predicting human behavior according to Rotter's theory?
Which variable is NOT considered in predicting human behavior according to Rotter's theory?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary focus of Rotter's interactionist position?
What is the primary focus of Rotter's interactionist position?
Signup and view all the answers
In the context of expectancy, what does it primarily refer to?
In the context of expectancy, what does it primarily refer to?
Signup and view all the answers
What distinguishes reinforcement value from behavior potential in Rotter's theory?
What distinguishes reinforcement value from behavior potential in Rotter's theory?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the outcome of low reinforcement value in a scenario according to Rotter's theory?
What is the outcome of low reinforcement value in a scenario according to Rotter's theory?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is true about both internal and external reinforcement?
Which of the following is true about both internal and external reinforcement?
Signup and view all the answers
How did Julian Rotter's academic background influence his later theories?
How did Julian Rotter's academic background influence his later theories?
Signup and view all the answers
What is one critical aspect of Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Personality System?
What is one critical aspect of Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Personality System?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Mischel mean by the term 'behavioral signature'?
What does Mischel mean by the term 'behavioral signature'?
Signup and view all the answers
According to Mischel, what primarily influences behavior rather than a global personality trait?
According to Mischel, what primarily influences behavior rather than a global personality trait?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is NOT considered a cognitive-affective unit by Mischel?
Which of the following is NOT considered a cognitive-affective unit by Mischel?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the concept of 'locus of control' primarily relate to in behavioral prediction?
What does the concept of 'locus of control' primarily relate to in behavioral prediction?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best describes the situation variables identified by Mischel?
Which of the following best describes the situation variables identified by Mischel?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a key critique of cognitive social learning theory according to the content?
What is a key critique of cognitive social learning theory according to the content?
Signup and view all the answers
How do expectancies and beliefs function as cognitive-affective units in behavior prediction?
How do expectancies and beliefs function as cognitive-affective units in behavior prediction?
Signup and view all the answers
What was the focus of Mischel and Shoda's analysis of reactions to the O.J. Simpson verdict?
What was the focus of Mischel and Shoda's analysis of reactions to the O.J. Simpson verdict?
Signup and view all the answers
Which cognitive-affective unit is described as an individualized strategy for processing information?
Which cognitive-affective unit is described as an individualized strategy for processing information?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Mischel identify as a fundamental outcome of having an internal locus of control?
What does Mischel identify as a fundamental outcome of having an internal locus of control?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Mischel's theory suggest about personality stability across different situations?
What does Mischel's theory suggest about personality stability across different situations?
Signup and view all the answers
Which reasoning process is characterized by the cognitive-affective units according to Mischel?
Which reasoning process is characterized by the cognitive-affective units according to Mischel?
Signup and view all the answers
What aspect of cognitive social learning theory gives it an optimistic view of human behavior?
What aspect of cognitive social learning theory gives it an optimistic view of human behavior?
Signup and view all the answers
In what way does Mischel's theory address the inconsistencies in behavior?
In what way does Mischel's theory address the inconsistencies in behavior?
Signup and view all the answers
Which element is NOT a part of the basic prediction formula in behavior prediction?
Which element is NOT a part of the basic prediction formula in behavior prediction?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the freedom of movement component specifically refer to in Rotter's theory?
What does the freedom of movement component specifically refer to in Rotter's theory?
Signup and view all the answers
Which category of needs according to Rotter is associated with achieving power over others?
Which category of needs according to Rotter is associated with achieving power over others?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary goal of Rotter's therapy for clients exhibiting maladaptive behaviors?
What is the primary goal of Rotter's therapy for clients exhibiting maladaptive behaviors?
Signup and view all the answers
Which scale is primarily used to assess the relationship between personal efforts and environmental outcomes?
Which scale is primarily used to assess the relationship between personal efforts and environmental outcomes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is maladaptive behavior, as defined by Rotter?
What is maladaptive behavior, as defined by Rotter?
Signup and view all the answers
In the context of needs, what does the term 'need value' represent?
In the context of needs, what does the term 'need value' represent?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is NOT one of the broad categories of needs listed by Rotter?
Which of the following is NOT one of the broad categories of needs listed by Rotter?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Mischel argue influences human behavior in addition to situational factors?
What does Mischel argue influences human behavior in addition to situational factors?
Signup and view all the answers
What are generalized expectancies based on according to the content?
What are generalized expectancies based on according to the content?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best describes the Internal-External Control Scale?
Which of the following best describes the Internal-External Control Scale?
Signup and view all the answers
According to Rotter's theory, low reinforcement value can lead to which outcome in behavior?
According to Rotter's theory, low reinforcement value can lead to which outcome in behavior?
Signup and view all the answers
What can be inferred about unmet needs regarding unhealthy behavior patterns?
What can be inferred about unmet needs regarding unhealthy behavior patterns?
Signup and view all the answers
Which aspect is pivotal for predicting behavior in Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Personality System?
Which aspect is pivotal for predicting behavior in Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Personality System?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the fundamental premise of Kelly's personal construct theory?
What is the fundamental premise of Kelly's personal construct theory?
Signup and view all the answers
How does Kelly's view differ from traditional cognitive social learning theories?
How does Kelly's view differ from traditional cognitive social learning theories?
Signup and view all the answers
What term does Kelly use to describe the approach individuals take towards predicting and controlling events in their lives?
What term does Kelly use to describe the approach individuals take towards predicting and controlling events in their lives?
Signup and view all the answers
In what year was Kelly's personal construct theory first published?
In what year was Kelly's personal construct theory first published?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Kelly suggest about the role of psychologists based on his personal construct theory?
What does Kelly suggest about the role of psychologists based on his personal construct theory?
Signup and view all the answers
What concept is central to George Kelly's Personal Construct Theory?
What concept is central to George Kelly's Personal Construct Theory?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is NOT one of the eleven corollaries of Kelly's Personal Construct Theory?
Which of the following is NOT one of the eleven corollaries of Kelly's Personal Construct Theory?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the experience cycle in Personal Construct Theory describe?
What does the experience cycle in Personal Construct Theory describe?
Signup and view all the answers
What role does the repertory test play in Personal Construct Theory?
What role does the repertory test play in Personal Construct Theory?
Signup and view all the answers
In Personal Construct Theory, what is the primary implication of abnormal development?
In Personal Construct Theory, what is the primary implication of abnormal development?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary advantage of employing a systematic construction system when facing conflicting solutions?
What is the primary advantage of employing a systematic construction system when facing conflicting solutions?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the Dichotomy Corollary influence decision-making in everyday scenarios?
How does the Dichotomy Corollary influence decision-making in everyday scenarios?
Signup and view all the answers
What role does the Choice Corollary play in the construction system?
What role does the Choice Corollary play in the construction system?
Signup and view all the answers
What limitation does the Range Corollary impose on personal constructs?
What limitation does the Range Corollary impose on personal constructs?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the Experience Corollary contribute to personal growth?
How does the Experience Corollary contribute to personal growth?
Signup and view all the answers
Which aspect of the Modulation Corollary highlights differences among individuals?
Which aspect of the Modulation Corollary highlights differences among individuals?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the Fragmentation Corollary reveal about a person's construction subsystems?
What does the Fragmentation Corollary reveal about a person's construction subsystems?
Signup and view all the answers
In which scenario would the Modulation Corollary become particularly relevant?
In which scenario would the Modulation Corollary become particularly relevant?
Signup and view all the answers
Why might someone engage in the process referenced by the Fragmentation Corollary?
Why might someone engage in the process referenced by the Fragmentation Corollary?
Signup and view all the answers
What is an essential component of the Organization Corollary?
What is an essential component of the Organization Corollary?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Kelly mean when he refers to individuals as 'man-the-scientist'?
What does Kelly mean when he refers to individuals as 'man-the-scientist'?
Signup and view all the answers
What implication does the Choice Corollary have on decision-making processes?
What implication does the Choice Corollary have on decision-making processes?
Signup and view all the answers
What drives the variability in personal constructs according to the Modulation Corollary?
What drives the variability in personal constructs according to the Modulation Corollary?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the Commonality Corollary facilitate interpersonal relations?
How does the Commonality Corollary facilitate interpersonal relations?
Signup and view all the answers
What psychological phenomenon does Kelly associate with the awareness of imminent comprehensive change in one's core structures?
What psychological phenomenon does Kelly associate with the awareness of imminent comprehensive change in one's core structures?
Signup and view all the answers
Which cycle begins with loose constructions and leads to tightened and validated constructions?
Which cycle begins with loose constructions and leads to tightened and validated constructions?
Signup and view all the answers
What role does the Sociality Corollary play in social interactions?
What role does the Sociality Corollary play in social interactions?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Kelly identify as a common psychological phenomena arising from difficulty in transitioning from ineffective constructs?
What does Kelly identify as a common psychological phenomena arising from difficulty in transitioning from ineffective constructs?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the C-P-C Cycle emphasize in the context of personal constructs?
What does the C-P-C Cycle emphasize in the context of personal constructs?
Signup and view all the answers
In what way does aggressiveness function as a defense mechanism according to Kelly?
In what way does aggressiveness function as a defense mechanism according to Kelly?
Signup and view all the answers
What distinguishes creativity in the context of personal construct theory?
What distinguishes creativity in the context of personal construct theory?
Signup and view all the answers
Which psychological experience relates to the perception of being dislodged from one's core role structure?
Which psychological experience relates to the perception of being dislodged from one's core role structure?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best captures a limitation in the behavioral perspective as compared to the cognitive perspective?
Which of the following best captures a limitation in the behavioral perspective as compared to the cognitive perspective?
Signup and view all the answers
Which constructs emerge as vital components of psychological well-being according to Kelly?
Which constructs emerge as vital components of psychological well-being according to Kelly?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Kelly believe about the relationship between personal constructs and self-perception?
What does Kelly believe about the relationship between personal constructs and self-perception?
Signup and view all the answers
According to Kelly, which is essential for a fully functioning person?
According to Kelly, which is essential for a fully functioning person?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Kelly suggest about how the universe is understood by individuals?
What does Kelly suggest about how the universe is understood by individuals?
Signup and view all the answers
According to Kelly, how should life's changes be understood?
According to Kelly, how should life's changes be understood?
Signup and view all the answers
What are constructs according to Kelly's theory?
What are constructs according to Kelly's theory?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the term 'constructive alternativism' refer to in Kelly's theory?
What does the term 'constructive alternativism' refer to in Kelly's theory?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the Fundamental Postulate of personal construct theory?
What is the Fundamental Postulate of personal construct theory?
Signup and view all the answers
Which corollary states that individuals construct events differently from each other?
Which corollary states that individuals construct events differently from each other?
Signup and view all the answers
How does Kelly define anticipatory processes in personal construct theory?
How does Kelly define anticipatory processes in personal construct theory?
Signup and view all the answers
What role do constructs play in how individuals relate to their environments?
What role do constructs play in how individuals relate to their environments?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Kelly emphasize is necessary for evaluating potential alternative constructs?
What does Kelly emphasize is necessary for evaluating potential alternative constructs?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the term 'construing' in Kelly's theory refer to?
What does the term 'construing' in Kelly's theory refer to?
Signup and view all the answers
According to Kelly, what is the relationship between psychological processes and reality?
According to Kelly, what is the relationship between psychological processes and reality?
Signup and view all the answers
How does Kelly describe the mind in the context of personal construct theory?
How does Kelly describe the mind in the context of personal construct theory?
Signup and view all the answers
What differentiates constructs from cognition according to Kelly?
What differentiates constructs from cognition according to Kelly?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary focus of Kelly's theory of personal constructs?
What is the primary focus of Kelly's theory of personal constructs?
Signup and view all the answers
What is essential for a person to achieve self-actualization according to Rogers?
What is essential for a person to achieve self-actualization according to Rogers?
Signup and view all the answers
What does congruence between self-image and ideal self lead to?
What does congruence between self-image and ideal self lead to?
Signup and view all the answers
Which factor is most likely to hinder the process of self-actualization according to Rogers?
Which factor is most likely to hinder the process of self-actualization according to Rogers?
Signup and view all the answers
How does Carl Rogers describe a fully functioning person?
How does Carl Rogers describe a fully functioning person?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary goal of client-centered therapy developed by Rogers?
What is the primary goal of client-centered therapy developed by Rogers?
Signup and view all the answers
Which concept is central to Carl Rogers' personality theory?
Which concept is central to Carl Rogers' personality theory?
Signup and view all the answers
What role does childhood experience play in achieving self-actualization according to Rogers?
What role does childhood experience play in achieving self-actualization according to Rogers?
Signup and view all the answers
According to Rogers, what effect does inconsistency between a person's self-image and their ideal self have?
According to Rogers, what effect does inconsistency between a person's self-image and their ideal self have?
Signup and view all the answers
What do critics argue about the concept of the fully functioning person?
What do critics argue about the concept of the fully functioning person?
Signup and view all the answers
How does Rogers view the potential of human beings?
How does Rogers view the potential of human beings?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a significant influence on self-concept identified by Rogers?
What is a significant influence on self-concept identified by Rogers?
Signup and view all the answers
What metaphor does Rogers use to illustrate human potential?
What metaphor does Rogers use to illustrate human potential?
Signup and view all the answers
How did Rogers view the role of the therapist in his approach to client-centered therapy?
How did Rogers view the role of the therapist in his approach to client-centered therapy?
Signup and view all the answers
What methodology did Rogers implement to enhance his therapeutic practice?
What methodology did Rogers implement to enhance his therapeutic practice?
Signup and view all the answers
What does self-esteem refer to in Rogers' framework of self-concept?
What does self-esteem refer to in Rogers' framework of self-concept?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a key implication of Rogers' assertion that 'the client knows what hurts'?
What is a key implication of Rogers' assertion that 'the client knows what hurts'?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a characteristic of a person with high self-worth according to Carl Rogers?
What is a characteristic of a person with high self-worth according to Carl Rogers?
Signup and view all the answers
Which aspect distinguishes unconditional positive regard from conditional positive regard?
Which aspect distinguishes unconditional positive regard from conditional positive regard?
Signup and view all the answers
What does incongruence reflect in an individual's self-concept?
What does incongruence reflect in an individual's self-concept?
Signup and view all the answers
According to Rogers, what key factor helps develop congruence in an individual?
According to Rogers, what key factor helps develop congruence in an individual?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a potential limitation of practicing unconditional positive regard?
What is a potential limitation of practicing unconditional positive regard?
Signup and view all the answers
What is essential for an individual to achieve self-actualization according to Carl Rogers?
What is essential for an individual to achieve self-actualization according to Carl Rogers?
Signup and view all the answers
What defense mechanism may a person use to cope with feelings of incongruence?
What defense mechanism may a person use to cope with feelings of incongruence?
Signup and view all the answers
How does a person with low self-worth typically respond to challenges?
How does a person with low self-worth typically respond to challenges?
Signup and view all the answers
What role does early childhood interaction play in self-worth development?
What role does early childhood interaction play in self-worth development?
Signup and view all the answers
Which therapeutic approach relies heavily on the principle of unconditional positive regard?
Which therapeutic approach relies heavily on the principle of unconditional positive regard?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Rogers imply about the deterministic view of human behavior?
What does Rogers imply about the deterministic view of human behavior?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a primary outcome of experiencing unconditional positive regard in childhood?
What is a primary outcome of experiencing unconditional positive regard in childhood?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of these best describes the state of congruence?
Which of these best describes the state of congruence?
Signup and view all the answers
What is one risk associated with the practice of unconditional positive regard in therapy?
What is one risk associated with the practice of unconditional positive regard in therapy?
Signup and view all the answers
Study Notes
Continuous Reinforcement
- Delivers reinforcement after every response.
- Learning is fast, but response rate is low.
- Extinction is rapid when reinforcement stops.
Partial Reinforcement
- Reinforces behaviors intermittently.
- Based on response number or time elapsed.
- Leads to more persistent learning than continuous reinforcement.
Fixed-Ratio Schedules
- Reinforcement after a specific number of responses.
- Produces a steady response rate.
Fixed-Interval Schedules
- Reinforcement after a specific time interval.
- Response rate is steady, increases near reinforcement time, then slows after reinforcement.
Variable-Ratio Schedules
- Reinforcement after a variable number of responses.
- High response rate and slow extinction.
Variable-Interval Schedules
- Reinforcement after a variable time interval.
- High response rate and slow extinction.
Examples of Operant Conditioning
- Positive Reinforcement: Receiving applause for a play performance increases the likelihood of future performances.
- Positive Reinforcement: Praising a dog for fetching encourages the behavior.
- Negative Reinforcement: Excused from a final exam for perfect attendance increases class attendance.
- Positive Punishment: Being berated for late project submission decreases the likelihood of future late submissions.
- Negative Punishment: Losing phone privileges for not cleaning a room decreases the likelihood of future uncleanliness.
- Operant conditioning can increase behavior through rewards or decrease behavior through punishment (removing desirable outcomes or applying negative ones).
Observational Learning Examples
- Children learn to fold laundry by imitating parents.
- Diners learn chopstick use by observing others.
- Children learn not to hit by observing consequences.
- Children learn hide-and-seek rules through observation.
Stages of Observational Learning
- Attention: Observers must focus on the model's behavior; reward, attractiveness, and similarity to the observer increase attention.
- Retention: Observers must remember the observed behavior; failure to remember requires returning to the attention stage.
- Reproduction: Observers attempt to replicate the behavior; individual capacity influences success.
- Motivation: Observers need motivation to perform the learned behavior; rewards increase motivation, punishment decreases it.
Influences on Observational Learning
- More likely to imitate warm, nurturing, rewarded individuals.
- More likely to imitate authoritative figures, similar individuals, admired individuals, or those of higher status.
- Past rewards for imitation and lack of confidence increase likelihood of imitation.
- Ambiguous situations also increase likelihood of imitation.
Pros and Cons of Observational Learning
- Teaches and reinforces or decreases behaviors; crucial in childhood skill and consequence learning.
- Potential for negative outcomes; research shows mixed results on correlations between video game violence and aggression, and sexual media exposure and teen sexual behavior.
- Context matters: observer's peers and parental involvement influence imitation.
Uses of Observational Learning
- Learning new behaviors (e.g., children watching parents, students watching teachers).
- Strengthening skills (e.g., students observing rewarded classmates).
- Minimizing negative behaviors (e.g., observing a coworker's reprimand).
Factors Influencing Attachment Development
- Opportunity for attachment: A primary caregiver is crucial; lack thereof (e.g., orphanage upbringing) hinders trust and attachment formation.
- Quality caregiving: Responsive and consistent caregivers build dependability, forming the foundation for secure attachment. This is a vital factor.
Attachment Styles
- Secure attachment: Most common; children show distress upon separation but are comforted upon reunion, confidently seeking reassurance when frightened. Leads to better self-esteem and social skills later.
- Ambivalent attachment: (7-15% of US children) Distress upon separation; inconsistent parental availability leads to difficulty depending on caregivers.
- Avoidant attachment: Children avoid caregivers, showing no preference over strangers; may result from abuse or neglect, teaching them to avoid seeking help.
- Disorganized attachment: Confusing behavior—disorientation, avoidance, or resistance—stemming from caregivers being both sources of comfort and fear.
Long-Term Impact of Attachment
- Secure attachment in infancy fosters better self-esteem, self-reliance, school performance, social relationships, and reduces depression/anxiety later in life.
- Insecure attachment can negatively impact behavior throughout life, linking to disorders like ODD, CD, and PTSD, especially if caused by abuse, neglect, or trauma. Adoption after 6 months may increase risk.
Attachment Disorders
- Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD): Failure to form healthy bonds with caregivers due to early neglect or abuse; problems with emotional regulation and withdrawal from caregivers.
- Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED): Difficulty forming bonds, stemming from trauma or neglect; characterized by uninhibited behavior with strangers, lacking social boundaries.
Cognitive Social Learning Theory Overview
- Rotter and Mischel emphasize cognitive factors over immediate reinforcements in determining behavioral responses to environmental forces.
- Future event expectations significantly influence performance.
Julian Rotter Biography
- Born in Brooklyn in 1916.
- Initially studied chemistry, later earned a Ph.D. in clinical psychology from Indiana University (1941).
- Taught at Ohio State (where Walter Mischel was his student) and later at the University of Connecticut.
Rotter's Social Learning Theory
- Interactionist perspective: behavior stems from the interaction between individuals and their meaningful environments.
- Personality has fundamental unity, though it's adaptable.
- Empirical law of effect: people choose actions leading to anticipated goals.
Predicting Specific Behaviors (Rotter)
- Four variables predict behavior: behavior potential, expectancy, reinforcement value, and psychological situation.
- Behavior Potential: Likelihood of a response given its reinforcement.
- Expectancy: Confidence that a behavior will result in specific reinforcement in a given situation (general or specific).
- Reinforcement Value: Preference for a reinforcement, considering likelihood. Includes internal (individual perception) and external (societal evaluation) reinforcement and reinforcement-reinforcement sequences (value of an event based on its leading to future reinforcements).
- Psychological Situation: The relevant internal and external factors influencing behavior.
- Basic Prediction Formula: Behavior potential is a function of expectancy and reinforcement value in a specific situation.
Predicting General Behaviors (Rotter)
- Generalized expectancies: Expectations based on past experiences.
- Needs: Functionally related behavior categories aiming for similar goals. Six categories are recognition-status, dominance, independence, protection-dependency, love and affection, physical comfort. Needs have three components: need potential, freedom of movement, need value.
- General Prediction Formula: Need potential is a function of freedom of movement and need value.
- Internal-External Control Scale ("locus of control"): Measures perceived causal link between efforts and environmental consequences.
- Interpersonal Trust Scale: Measures expectation of others' truthfulness.
Maladaptive Behavior (Rotter)
- Persistent behavior failing to achieve desired goals, often due to unrealistic goals and low achievement ability.
Psychotherapy (Rotter)
- Aims to harmonize freedom of movement and need value.
- Involves changing goal importance and eliminating low expectancies of success. Inappropriate goals include goal conflict, destructive goals and unrealistic goals. Methods include reinforcing positive behaviors, ignoring negative ones, advice, modeling and clarifying consequences.
Walter Mischel Biography
- Born in Vienna in 1930; family immigrated to the US in 1938.
- Earned Ph.D. at Ohio State under Julian Rotter.
- Professor at Columbia University.
Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Personality System
- Initially stressed situational influence on behavior, later emphasized relatively stable cognitive-affective units.
- Consistency Paradox: Discrepancy between perceived behavioral consistency and research findings.
- Person-Situation Interaction: Behavior predicted by person, situation, and their interaction.
Cognitive-Affective Personality System (Mischel)
- Inconsistent behavior reflects stable patterns of variation. "If A, then X; but if B, then Y" framework. Behavioral signature: Unique and stable pattern of varying behavior.
- Behavior Prediction: Behavior varies as situations vary, despite some temporal stability.
- Situation Variables: Stimuli influencing behavior.
- Cognitive-Affective Units: Psychological, social, and physiological factors enabling stable interaction. Includes encoding strategies (categorizing information), competencies and self-regulatory strategies (including intelligence), expectancies and beliefs, goals and values, and affective responses (emotions).
Related Research
- Rotter's locus of control is widely researched.
- Mischel's delay of gratification and cognitive-affective system are also extensively studied.
- Health locus of control research links perceived control over health behaviors to health outcomes (e.g., smoking, alcohol, diet). Internally focused individuals generally exhibit healthier behavior.
- Analysis of reactions to O.J. Simpson trial verdict showed that thoughts and feelings, rather than race alone, determined reactions.
Critique of Cognitive Social Learning Theory
- Combines learning theory rigor with forward-looking human assumptions.
- High on research generation and internal consistency; average on falsifiability, data organization, and action guidance.
Concept of Humanity
- People are goal-directed, cognitive beings. Perceptions are more crucial than events themselves.
- High on social influence, individual uniqueness, free choice, teleology, and conscious processes. Rotter's view is more optimistic than Mischel's (which is moderate).
Kelly's Personal Construct Theory
- Focuses on cognitive constructs as primary drivers of behavior, unlike cognitive social learning theories.
- Introduced in a two-volume set published in 1955, with further elaboration by Maher in 1969.
- Proposes "man-the-scientist" metaphor: individuals constantly test hypotheses about their lives.
- Emphasizes constructive alternativism: the belief that multiple interpretations of the world are possible, and all current interpretations are open to revision.
- The world is "existing," constantly changing, and understood within a temporal context as a relationship between living things and their environment.
Basic Theory: Fundamental Postulate and Corollaries
- Fundamental Postulate: A person's psychological processes are shaped by their anticipation of events.
- Construction Corollary: People anticipate events by construing their replications (interpreting new events based on past experiences). Much of this is preverbal or unconscious.
- Individuality Corollary: People differ in their construction of events, even with shared experiences.
- Organization Corollary: People organize constructs hierarchically, with some constructs ranking higher than others.
- Dichotomy Corollary: Constructs are bipolar (e.g., good/bad, tall/short). Decisions involve choosing between options within a construct.
- Choice Corollary: People choose alternatives anticipating greater possibility for extending and defining their system. Acknowledges shades of gray in decision-making.
- Range Corollary: Constructs have a limited range of convenience; they don't apply to all situations.
- Experience Corollary: Construction systems vary as people construe replications of events; learning from experience.
- Modulation Corollary: Construction system variation is limited by construct permeability; some constructs change easier than others.
- Fragmentation Corollary: Individuals may use incompatible construction subsystems; behavior changes can be seen as reasonable progressions.
- Commonality Corollary: Shared constructions lead to similar psychological processes. Important for interpersonal relations and cross-cultural interactions.
- Sociality Corollary: Construing another's construction processes allows for social interaction and role-playing.
Dimensions of Transition: Psychological Phenomena and Cycles
- Threat: Awareness of imminent comprehensive change in core structures.
- Fear: Similar to threat, but involves a new incidental construct rather than a comprehensive one.
- Guilt: Perception of dislodgment from one's core role structure.
- Anxiety: Recognition that events are outside our constructs' range of convenience. These phenomena challenge the self.
- Aggressiveness: Active elaboration of one's perceptual field to control events.
- Hostility: Continued effort to validate failed predictions at the expense of others.
- C-P-C Cycle: Circumspection (wary consideration), Preemption (choosing a construct), Control (the consequence of the first two steps).
- Creativity Cycle: Loose constructions, tightened, then validated. Creativity requires starting with loose constructions.
Supplemental Materials
- Videos on George Kelly's Personal Construct Theory are available online, covering his biography, constructive alternativism, corollaries, abnormal development, experience cycle, and repertory test.
Client-Centered Therapy (Person-Centered Therapy)
- Developed by Carl Rogers, it's a non-directive approach prioritizing client autonomy and self-discovery.
- Focuses on removing obstacles to facilitate personal growth and development.
- Emphasizes client responsibility and self-understanding.
- Rogers pioneered recording and publishing complete psychotherapy case studies.
Self-Concept in Rogers' Personality Theory
- The organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.
- Encompasses self-image, self-esteem, and ideal self.
- Shaped by childhood experiences and evaluations from others.
- Congruence between self-image and ideal self fosters high self-worth; incongruence leads to anxiety and tension.
Positive Regard and Self-Worth
- Two basic needs identified by Rogers: positive regard from others and self-worth.
- High self-worth is characterized by confidence, acceptance of challenges and setbacks, and openness.
- Low self-worth involves avoidance of challenges, difficulty accepting negative emotions, and defensiveness.
- Developed in early childhood through interactions with parents and significant others.
Unconditional Positive Regard
- Acceptance and love without judgment or criticism, regardless of actions or mistakes.
- Fosters self-worth and positive outcomes.
- Used in therapy to compensate for childhood deficiencies and promote healthier self-esteem.
- Enables risk-taking, experimentation, and personal growth.
- While valuable, presents challenges in implementation and potential for inauthenticity.
Congruence and Incongruence
- Congruence: consistency between ideal self and actual experience.
- Incongruence: discrepancy between ideal self and actual experience, causing psychological distress.
- Defense mechanisms like denial and repression may be used to manage incongruence.
- Unconditional positive regard promotes congruence and facilitates self-actualization.
Self-Actualization
- Innate human motivation to fulfill one’s potential.
- Requires positive self-regard and congruence between ideal self and self-image.
- Influenced by both internal factors (self-concept) and external environment.
- Rogers believed humans are inherently good and creative, becoming destructive only under adverse conditions.
The Fully Functioning Person
- Represents the ideal outcome of self-actualization.
- Characterized by self-awareness, openness to experience, continuous growth, and adaptability.
- Viewed as an ongoing process, not a final state.
- Often associated with high achievement, however, criticized for being a culturally specific ideal (Western emphasis).
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
Description
Explore the concepts of operant conditioning through continuous and partial reinforcement schedules. Learn how different reinforcement schedules affect learning and response rates. This quiz will test your understanding of the key principles and examples of operant conditioning.