Psychology: Operant Conditioning Overview

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary effect of negatively reinforcing students to attend class regularly?

It removes an unpleasant stimulus. (correct)

It results in an increase in disciplinary actions.

It increases their attendance by offering a reward.

It decreases their motivation to learn.

How does positive punishment function in a workplace scenario?

By berating employees in front of colleagues. (correct)

By providing incentives for meeting deadlines.

By rewarding employees for timely project submission.

By making an employee feel valued during performance reviews.

What is the outcome when a teen girl has her phone taken away for not cleaning her room?

A reward for following household rules.

Negative reinforcement due to the removal of a positive stimulus. (correct)

Positive punishment encouraging her to clean more often.

Positive reinforcement for cleaning her room in the future.

In the context of operant conditioning, what is meant by the potential for punishment reducing disruptive behaviors?

It serves as a deterrent through the fear of consequences. Signup and view all the answers

What role do rewards play in influencing behavior according to operant conditioning?

They can increase desired behavior when promised or offered. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of continuous reinforcement?

Reinforcement occurs after every instance of a response. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of partial reinforcement is likely to produce the highest response rate?

Variable-ratio schedule Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a fixed-interval schedule?

Reinforcement occurs after the first response in a specific time period. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to extinction rates when transitioning from continuous to partial reinforcement?

They slow down significantly in partial reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario exemplifies operant conditioning via positive reinforcement?

A dog learns to sit by receiving treats for the behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of transitioning to a partial reinforcement schedule after establishing a behavior?

To promote long-term retention of the learned behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes variable-interval schedules from fixed-interval schedules?

Variable-interval schedules involve varying amounts of time before reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

How do fixed-ratio schedules typically impact response rates?

Response rates remain steady and predictable. Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of observational learning involves focusing on the model's behavior to grasp what they are doing?

Attention Signup and view all the answers

What is necessary for an observer to successfully replicate a behavior demonstrated by a model?

Motivation Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is least likely to enhance an observer's attention to a model?

The model showing indifference Signup and view all the answers

After observing a behavior, what is the primary challenge if the observer cannot remember what they witnessed?

Retention Signup and view all the answers

In which stage of observational learning does an observer attempt to mimic a behavior they have witnessed?

Reproduction Signup and view all the answers

What impact does observing a model being rewarded have on an observer's level of focus?

Increases focus on the model Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best reflects a unique aspect of observational learning compared to simple imitation?

Involves social and motivational factors Signup and view all the answers

If an observer successfully recalls a model's behavior but does not attempt to replicate it, which stage are they likely struggling with?

Motivation Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is less likely to increase the likelihood of a behavior being imitated?

The observer lack confidence in their own abilities Signup and view all the answers

What potential impact does witnessing a model being punished have on an observer's motivation to imitate behavior?

It decreases motivation because of observed consequences Signup and view all the answers

What is a key limiting factor in the effectiveness of observational learning in children?

The complexity of the task being observed Signup and view all the answers

In which scenario is observational learning most likely to lead to a negative behavior outcome?

When peers consume sexual media together without parental restriction Signup and view all the answers

What is one significant conclusion from Bandura's research regarding factors that influence observational learning?

Perceived similarity to the model can enhance the likelihood of imitation Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT typically associated with increasing the likelihood of behavior imitation?

Observing others being reprimanded Signup and view all the answers

What has recent research indicated regarding the relationship between video game play and aggressive behavior?

There is no direct connection between video game play and violent behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which strategy best illustrates how observational learning can be used to minimize negative behaviors in a workplace setting?

Showing examples of peers being reprimanded for poor performance Signup and view all the answers

In what context is observational learning shown to be particularly influential?

When individuals lack previous experience with the behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario exemplifies a positive outcome of observational learning?

A child watches a parent accurately complete a puzzle Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of children with ambivalent attachment?

They become very distressed when a parent leaves. Signup and view all the answers

Which attachment style is associated with children who avoid seeking help from caregivers?

Avoidant attachment Signup and view all the answers

What primarily influences the development of secure attachment in children?

The responsiveness of primary caregivers Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of disorganized attachment in children?

Children exhibit confusing behaviors towards caregivers. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the long-term impact of secure attachment in early childhood?

It is associated with better performance in academic and social settings. Signup and view all the answers

How do children with avoidant attachment typically react to caregivers?

They show equal preference for caregivers and strangers. Signup and view all the answers

What might cause a child to develop disorganized attachment?

Inconsistent and unpredictable caregiver responses. Signup and view all the answers

In which context is ambivalent attachment most likely to arise?

Children experiencing neglect or unavailability from caregivers. Signup and view all the answers

What are common factors that may lead to the development of attachment disorders in children?

Early abuse, neglect, or trauma Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic distinguishes reactive attachment disorder (RAD) from disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED)?

Emotional management difficulties Signup and view all the answers

Children adopted after the age of 6 months may be at risk for which of the following attachment-related issues?

Greater risk of attachment problems Signup and view all the answers

What is a major consequence of reactive attachment disorder (RAD) in affected children?

Patterns of withdrawal from caregivers Signup and view all the answers

Disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED) primarily results from a lack of which of the following?

Secure bonding with caregivers Signup and view all the answers

What does Rotter's empirical law of effect state regarding human behavior?

Individuals will choose actions that lead to anticipated goals. Signup and view all the answers

Which variable is NOT considered in predicting human behavior according to Rotter's theory?

Mood Variation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Rotter's interactionist position?

The interaction between individuals and their environments. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of expectancy, what does it primarily refer to?

Confidence in receiving reinforcement following specific behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes reinforcement value from behavior potential in Rotter's theory?

Reinforcement value compares personal preferences against all possible reinforcements. Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of low reinforcement value in a scenario according to Rotter's theory?

Diminished motivation to engage in the behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about both internal and external reinforcement?

Both types reflect those evaluations, either personal or societal. Signup and view all the answers

How did Julian Rotter's academic background influence his later theories?

His exposure to Freud and Adler shaped his understanding of personality. Signup and view all the answers

What is one critical aspect of Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Personality System?

Signup and view all the answers

What does Mischel mean by the term 'behavioral signature'?

A unique and stable pattern of behavior that varies in different contexts. Signup and view all the answers

According to Mischel, what primarily influences behavior rather than a global personality trait?

Perceptions of oneself in specific situations. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT considered a cognitive-affective unit by Mischel?

Physical health status. Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'locus of control' primarily relate to in behavioral prediction?

The belief in personal control over life events and health behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the situation variables identified by Mischel?

External stimuli that influence behavior in a specific context. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key critique of cognitive social learning theory according to the content?

It contains speculative assumptions about human behavior. Signup and view all the answers

How do expectancies and beliefs function as cognitive-affective units in behavior prediction?

They provide predictions about the outcomes of various behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What was the focus of Mischel and Shoda's analysis of reactions to the O.J. Simpson verdict?

The internal thoughts and feelings of individuals regarding the verdict. Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive-affective unit is described as an individualized strategy for processing information?

Encoding strategies. Signup and view all the answers

What does Mischel identify as a fundamental outcome of having an internal locus of control?

Increased likelihood of practicing health-related behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What does Mischel's theory suggest about personality stability across different situations?

Behavioral responses vary according to specific situational contexts. Signup and view all the answers

Which reasoning process is characterized by the cognitive-affective units according to Mischel?

Stable cognitive patterns leading to variable behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of cognitive social learning theory gives it an optimistic view of human behavior?

It emphasizes free choice and goals in determining behavior. Signup and view all the answers

In what way does Mischel's theory address the inconsistencies in behavior?

By recognizing them as stable patterns of variation within an individual. Signup and view all the answers

Which element is NOT a part of the basic prediction formula in behavior prediction?

Perceived goals Signup and view all the answers

What does the freedom of movement component specifically refer to in Rotter's theory?

A person's expectation of receiving reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

Which category of needs according to Rotter is associated with achieving power over others?

Dominance Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of Rotter's therapy for clients exhibiting maladaptive behaviors?

To find a balance between freedom of movement and need value. Signup and view all the answers

Which scale is primarily used to assess the relationship between personal efforts and environmental outcomes?

Internal-External Control Scale Signup and view all the answers

What is maladaptive behavior, as defined by Rotter?

Persistent behavior that does not lead to a desired goal. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of needs, what does the term 'need value' represent?

The extent of preference for certain reinforcements. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the broad categories of needs listed by Rotter?

Identity Signup and view all the answers

What does Mischel argue influences human behavior in addition to situational factors?

Personality traits and cognitive-affective units Signup and view all the answers

What are generalized expectancies based on according to the content?

Past experiences of reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the Internal-External Control Scale?

A tool for examining locus of control. Signup and view all the answers

According to Rotter's theory, low reinforcement value can lead to which outcome in behavior?

Reduced likelihood of goal-directed behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about unmet needs regarding unhealthy behavior patterns?

They contribute to the formation of maladaptive behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is pivotal for predicting behavior in Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Personality System?

Stable personal dispositions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental premise of Kelly's personal construct theory?

Individuals actively theorize and test their own hypotheses about life. Signup and view all the answers

How does Kelly's view differ from traditional cognitive social learning theories?

Kelly prioritizes cognitive constructs over environmental circumstances. Signup and view all the answers

What term does Kelly use to describe the approach individuals take towards predicting and controlling events in their lives?

Man-the-scientist Signup and view all the answers

In what year was Kelly's personal construct theory first published?

1955 Signup and view all the answers

What does Kelly suggest about the role of psychologists based on his personal construct theory?

Psychologists are not significantly different from other individuals in their reasoning. Signup and view all the answers

What concept is central to George Kelly's Personal Construct Theory?

Constructive Alternativism Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the eleven corollaries of Kelly's Personal Construct Theory?

The Randomness Corollary Signup and view all the answers

What does the experience cycle in Personal Construct Theory describe?

The process of interpreting and responding to experiences Signup and view all the answers

What role does the repertory test play in Personal Construct Theory?

It assesses personal constructs of individuals Signup and view all the answers

In Personal Construct Theory, what is the primary implication of abnormal development?

It is seen as a failure to navigate the experience cycle effectively Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of employing a systematic construction system when facing conflicting solutions?

It prioritizes the most effective solution. Signup and view all the answers

How does the Dichotomy Corollary influence decision-making in everyday scenarios?

It highlights that every construct has both advantages and disadvantages. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the Choice Corollary play in the construction system?

It allows for nuanced decisions within a spectrum of options. Signup and view all the answers

What limitation does the Range Corollary impose on personal constructs?

Constructs are restricted to a finite set of events. Signup and view all the answers

How does the Experience Corollary contribute to personal growth?

It facilitates learning through repeated encounters with varied outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of the Modulation Corollary highlights differences among individuals?

The varying ease with which constructs can be altered. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Fragmentation Corollary reveal about a person's construction subsystems?

They can be incompatible and cause conflicting behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

In which scenario would the Modulation Corollary become particularly relevant?

When an individual is open to adapting their perspectives based on new information. Signup and view all the answers

Why might someone engage in the process referenced by the Fragmentation Corollary?

To find the best way to control unpredictable outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What is an essential component of the Organization Corollary?

Creating a hierarchy among personal constructs. Signup and view all the answers

What does Kelly mean when he refers to individuals as 'man-the-scientist'?

Individuals continuously test and revise their constructs. Signup and view all the answers

What implication does the Choice Corollary have on decision-making processes?

Decisions are influenced by a complex array of personal constructs. Signup and view all the answers

What drives the variability in personal constructs according to the Modulation Corollary?

The degree of permeability in those constructs. Signup and view all the answers

How does the Commonality Corollary facilitate interpersonal relations?

It promotes understanding through similar psychological processes. Signup and view all the answers

What psychological phenomenon does Kelly associate with the awareness of imminent comprehensive change in one's core structures?

Threat Signup and view all the answers

Which cycle begins with loose constructions and leads to tightened and validated constructions?

Creativity Cycle Signup and view all the answers

What role does the Sociality Corollary play in social interactions?

It encourages understanding others' construction processes to engage in social influence. Signup and view all the answers

What does Kelly identify as a common psychological phenomena arising from difficulty in transitioning from ineffective constructs?

Anxiety Signup and view all the answers

What does the C-P-C Cycle emphasize in the context of personal constructs?

Precise development of constructs before taking action. Signup and view all the answers

In what way does aggressiveness function as a defense mechanism according to Kelly?

It seeks validation for one's failed constructs at the expense of others. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes creativity in the context of personal construct theory?

It necessitates loose constructions followed by validation. Signup and view all the answers

Which psychological experience relates to the perception of being dislodged from one's core role structure?

Guilt Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best captures a limitation in the behavioral perspective as compared to the cognitive perspective?

Behavioral perspectives overlook subjective experiences. Signup and view all the answers

Which constructs emerge as vital components of psychological well-being according to Kelly?

Control and predictability. Signup and view all the answers

What does Kelly believe about the relationship between personal constructs and self-perception?

Personal constructs frame the larger construct of one's self. Signup and view all the answers

According to Kelly, which is essential for a fully functioning person?

The ability to creatively adapt and experiment. Signup and view all the answers

What does Kelly suggest about how the universe is understood by individuals?

It continually changes in the correspondence to individual thoughts. Signup and view all the answers

According to Kelly, how should life's changes be understood?

In the context of time and interaction with the environment. Signup and view all the answers

What are constructs according to Kelly's theory?

Mental patterns created to interpret reality. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'constructive alternativism' refer to in Kelly's theory?

The idea that interpretations of reality can always be revised. Signup and view all the answers

What is the Fundamental Postulate of personal construct theory?

Psychological processes are guided by a person's anticipation of events. Signup and view all the answers

Which corollary states that individuals construct events differently from each other?

Individuality Corollary Signup and view all the answers

How does Kelly define anticipatory processes in personal construct theory?

As ways to predict future events and choose corresponding actions. Signup and view all the answers

What role do constructs play in how individuals relate to their environments?

They help in representing and interpreting environmental realities. Signup and view all the answers

What does Kelly emphasize is necessary for evaluating potential alternative constructs?

Their ability to predict outcomes effectively. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'construing' in Kelly's theory refer to?

The interpretation placed upon events to understand them. Signup and view all the answers

According to Kelly, what is the relationship between psychological processes and reality?

They are tied to actual events and help represent future realities. Signup and view all the answers

How does Kelly describe the mind in the context of personal construct theory?

As a dynamic process constantly experimenting with constructs. Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates constructs from cognition according to Kelly?

Cognition is always conscious, while some constructing processes are preverbal. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Kelly's theory of personal constructs?

Understanding individual interpretations and anticipations of events. Signup and view all the answers

What is essential for a person to achieve self-actualization according to Rogers?

Unconditional positive regard Signup and view all the answers

What does congruence between self-image and ideal self lead to?

Positive self-regard Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is most likely to hinder the process of self-actualization according to Rogers?

A poor self-concept Signup and view all the answers

How does Carl Rogers describe a fully functioning person?

A person continuously growing and in touch with their experiences Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of client-centered therapy developed by Rogers?

To allow clients to explore and address issues they feel are important. Signup and view all the answers

Which concept is central to Carl Rogers' personality theory?

Self-concept. Signup and view all the answers

What role does childhood experience play in achieving self-actualization according to Rogers?

It serves as a primary determinant. Signup and view all the answers

According to Rogers, what effect does inconsistency between a person's self-image and their ideal self have?

It leads to psychological tension and anxiety. Signup and view all the answers

What do critics argue about the concept of the fully functioning person?

It overlooks the importance of collective achievement in non-Western cultures. Signup and view all the answers

How does Rogers view the potential of human beings?

Inherently good and creative, capable of growth Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant influence on self-concept identified by Rogers?

Childhood experiences. Signup and view all the answers

What metaphor does Rogers use to illustrate human potential?

A flower that blooms only in ideal conditions Signup and view all the answers

How did Rogers view the role of the therapist in his approach to client-centered therapy?

As a guide who facilitates the client's exploration. Signup and view all the answers

What methodology did Rogers implement to enhance his therapeutic practice?

Recording and analyzing his therapeutic sessions. Signup and view all the answers

What does self-esteem refer to in Rogers' framework of self-concept?

The amount of value a person places on themselves. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key implication of Rogers' assertion that 'the client knows what hurts'?

Clients are capable of identifying their own problems. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of a person with high self-worth according to Carl Rogers?

They accept failures as part of life. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect distinguishes unconditional positive regard from conditional positive regard?

Unconditional positive regard is given regardless of actions. Signup and view all the answers

What does incongruence reflect in an individual's self-concept?

A disconnect between how one sees oneself and actual feelings. Signup and view all the answers

According to Rogers, what key factor helps develop congruence in an individual?

Unconditional positive regard. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential limitation of practicing unconditional positive regard?

It may suppress personal feelings and beliefs. Signup and view all the answers

What is essential for an individual to achieve self-actualization according to Carl Rogers?

An ideal self that aligns with actual experiences. Signup and view all the answers

What defense mechanism may a person use to cope with feelings of incongruence?

Denial or repression of undesirable feelings. Signup and view all the answers

How does a person with low self-worth typically respond to challenges?

They avoid them and feel defensive. Signup and view all the answers

What role does early childhood interaction play in self-worth development?

It is crucial for forming initial feelings of self-worth. Signup and view all the answers

Which therapeutic approach relies heavily on the principle of unconditional positive regard?

Client-centered therapy. Signup and view all the answers

What does Rogers imply about the deterministic view of human behavior?

It overlooks personal perceptions and choices. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary outcome of experiencing unconditional positive regard in childhood?

Enhanced capability for self-actualization. Signup and view all the answers

Which of these best describes the state of congruence?

Perfect alignment of one’s ideal self and real self. Signup and view all the answers

What is one risk associated with the practice of unconditional positive regard in therapy?

It encourages harmful behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Continuous Reinforcement

Delivers reinforcement after every response.
Learning is fast, but response rate is low.
Extinction is rapid when reinforcement stops.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforces behaviors intermittently.
Based on response number or time elapsed.
Leads to more persistent learning than continuous reinforcement.

Fixed-Ratio Schedules

Reinforcement after a specific number of responses.
Produces a steady response rate.

Fixed-Interval Schedules

Reinforcement after a specific time interval.
Response rate is steady, increases near reinforcement time, then slows after reinforcement.

Variable-Ratio Schedules

Reinforcement after a variable number of responses.
High response rate and slow extinction.

Variable-Interval Schedules

Reinforcement after a variable time interval.
High response rate and slow extinction.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

Positive Reinforcement: Receiving applause for a play performance increases the likelihood of future performances.
Positive Reinforcement: Praising a dog for fetching encourages the behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Excused from a final exam for perfect attendance increases class attendance.
Positive Punishment: Being berated for late project submission decreases the likelihood of future late submissions.
Negative Punishment: Losing phone privileges for not cleaning a room decreases the likelihood of future uncleanliness.
Operant conditioning can increase behavior through rewards or decrease behavior through punishment (removing desirable outcomes or applying negative ones).

Observational Learning Examples

Children learn to fold laundry by imitating parents.
Diners learn chopstick use by observing others.
Children learn not to hit by observing consequences.
Children learn hide-and-seek rules through observation.

Stages of Observational Learning

Attention: Observers must focus on the model's behavior; reward, attractiveness, and similarity to the observer increase attention.
Retention: Observers must remember the observed behavior; failure to remember requires returning to the attention stage.
Reproduction: Observers attempt to replicate the behavior; individual capacity influences success.
Motivation: Observers need motivation to perform the learned behavior; rewards increase motivation, punishment decreases it.

Influences on Observational Learning

More likely to imitate warm, nurturing, rewarded individuals.
More likely to imitate authoritative figures, similar individuals, admired individuals, or those of higher status.
Past rewards for imitation and lack of confidence increase likelihood of imitation.
Ambiguous situations also increase likelihood of imitation.

Pros and Cons of Observational Learning

Teaches and reinforces or decreases behaviors; crucial in childhood skill and consequence learning.
Potential for negative outcomes; research shows mixed results on correlations between video game violence and aggression, and sexual media exposure and teen sexual behavior.
Context matters: observer's peers and parental involvement influence imitation.

Uses of Observational Learning

Learning new behaviors (e.g., children watching parents, students watching teachers).
Strengthening skills (e.g., students observing rewarded classmates).
Minimizing negative behaviors (e.g., observing a coworker's reprimand).

Factors Influencing Attachment Development

Opportunity for attachment: A primary caregiver is crucial; lack thereof (e.g., orphanage upbringing) hinders trust and attachment formation.
Quality caregiving: Responsive and consistent caregivers build dependability, forming the foundation for secure attachment. This is a vital factor.

Attachment Styles

Secure attachment: Most common; children show distress upon separation but are comforted upon reunion, confidently seeking reassurance when frightened. Leads to better self-esteem and social skills later.
Ambivalent attachment: (7-15% of US children) Distress upon separation; inconsistent parental availability leads to difficulty depending on caregivers.
Avoidant attachment: Children avoid caregivers, showing no preference over strangers; may result from abuse or neglect, teaching them to avoid seeking help.
Disorganized attachment: Confusing behavior—disorientation, avoidance, or resistance—stemming from caregivers being both sources of comfort and fear.

Long-Term Impact of Attachment

Secure attachment in infancy fosters better self-esteem, self-reliance, school performance, social relationships, and reduces depression/anxiety later in life.
Insecure attachment can negatively impact behavior throughout life, linking to disorders like ODD, CD, and PTSD, especially if caused by abuse, neglect, or trauma. Adoption after 6 months may increase risk.

Attachment Disorders

Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD): Failure to form healthy bonds with caregivers due to early neglect or abuse; problems with emotional regulation and withdrawal from caregivers.
Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED): Difficulty forming bonds, stemming from trauma or neglect; characterized by uninhibited behavior with strangers, lacking social boundaries.

Rotter and Mischel emphasize cognitive factors over immediate reinforcements in determining behavioral responses to environmental forces.
Future event expectations significantly influence performance.

Julian Rotter Biography

Born in Brooklyn in 1916.
Initially studied chemistry, later earned a Ph.D. in clinical psychology from Indiana University (1941).
Taught at Ohio State (where Walter Mischel was his student) and later at the University of Connecticut.

Interactionist perspective: behavior stems from the interaction between individuals and their meaningful environments.
Personality has fundamental unity, though it's adaptable.
Empirical law of effect: people choose actions leading to anticipated goals.

Predicting Specific Behaviors (Rotter)

Four variables predict behavior: behavior potential, expectancy, reinforcement value, and psychological situation.
Behavior Potential: Likelihood of a response given its reinforcement.
Expectancy: Confidence that a behavior will result in specific reinforcement in a given situation (general or specific).
Reinforcement Value: Preference for a reinforcement, considering likelihood. Includes internal (individual perception) and external (societal evaluation) reinforcement and reinforcement-reinforcement sequences (value of an event based on its leading to future reinforcements).
Psychological Situation: The relevant internal and external factors influencing behavior.
Basic Prediction Formula: Behavior potential is a function of expectancy and reinforcement value in a specific situation.

Predicting General Behaviors (Rotter)

Generalized expectancies: Expectations based on past experiences.
Needs: Functionally related behavior categories aiming for similar goals. Six categories are recognition-status, dominance, independence, protection-dependency, love and affection, physical comfort. Needs have three components: need potential, freedom of movement, need value.
General Prediction Formula: Need potential is a function of freedom of movement and need value.
Internal-External Control Scale ("locus of control"): Measures perceived causal link between efforts and environmental consequences.
Interpersonal Trust Scale: Measures expectation of others' truthfulness.

Maladaptive Behavior (Rotter)

Persistent behavior failing to achieve desired goals, often due to unrealistic goals and low achievement ability.

Psychotherapy (Rotter)

Aims to harmonize freedom of movement and need value.
Involves changing goal importance and eliminating low expectancies of success. Inappropriate goals include goal conflict, destructive goals and unrealistic goals. Methods include reinforcing positive behaviors, ignoring negative ones, advice, modeling and clarifying consequences.

Walter Mischel Biography

Born in Vienna in 1930; family immigrated to the US in 1938.
Earned Ph.D. at Ohio State under Julian Rotter.
Professor at Columbia University.

Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Personality System

Initially stressed situational influence on behavior, later emphasized relatively stable cognitive-affective units.
Consistency Paradox: Discrepancy between perceived behavioral consistency and research findings.
Person-Situation Interaction: Behavior predicted by person, situation, and their interaction.

Cognitive-Affective Personality System (Mischel)

Inconsistent behavior reflects stable patterns of variation. "If A, then X; but if B, then Y" framework. Behavioral signature: Unique and stable pattern of varying behavior.
Behavior Prediction: Behavior varies as situations vary, despite some temporal stability.
Situation Variables: Stimuli influencing behavior.
Cognitive-Affective Units: Psychological, social, and physiological factors enabling stable interaction. Includes encoding strategies (categorizing information), competencies and self-regulatory strategies (including intelligence), expectancies and beliefs, goals and values, and affective responses (emotions).

Rotter's locus of control is widely researched.
Mischel's delay of gratification and cognitive-affective system are also extensively studied.
Health locus of control research links perceived control over health behaviors to health outcomes (e.g., smoking, alcohol, diet). Internally focused individuals generally exhibit healthier behavior.
Analysis of reactions to O.J. Simpson trial verdict showed that thoughts and feelings, rather than race alone, determined reactions.

Combines learning theory rigor with forward-looking human assumptions.
High on research generation and internal consistency; average on falsifiability, data organization, and action guidance.

Concept of Humanity

People are goal-directed, cognitive beings. Perceptions are more crucial than events themselves.
High on social influence, individual uniqueness, free choice, teleology, and conscious processes. Rotter's view is more optimistic than Mischel's (which is moderate).

Kelly's Personal Construct Theory

Focuses on cognitive constructs as primary drivers of behavior, unlike cognitive social learning theories.
Introduced in a two-volume set published in 1955, with further elaboration by Maher in 1969.
Proposes "man-the-scientist" metaphor: individuals constantly test hypotheses about their lives.
Emphasizes constructive alternativism: the belief that multiple interpretations of the world are possible, and all current interpretations are open to revision.
The world is "existing," constantly changing, and understood within a temporal context as a relationship between living things and their environment.

Basic Theory: Fundamental Postulate and Corollaries

Fundamental Postulate: A person's psychological processes are shaped by their anticipation of events.
Construction Corollary: People anticipate events by construing their replications (interpreting new events based on past experiences). Much of this is preverbal or unconscious.
Individuality Corollary: People differ in their construction of events, even with shared experiences.
Organization Corollary: People organize constructs hierarchically, with some constructs ranking higher than others.
Dichotomy Corollary: Constructs are bipolar (e.g., good/bad, tall/short). Decisions involve choosing between options within a construct.
Choice Corollary: People choose alternatives anticipating greater possibility for extending and defining their system. Acknowledges shades of gray in decision-making.
Range Corollary: Constructs have a limited range of convenience; they don't apply to all situations.
Experience Corollary: Construction systems vary as people construe replications of events; learning from experience.
Modulation Corollary: Construction system variation is limited by construct permeability; some constructs change easier than others.
Fragmentation Corollary: Individuals may use incompatible construction subsystems; behavior changes can be seen as reasonable progressions.
Commonality Corollary: Shared constructions lead to similar psychological processes. Important for interpersonal relations and cross-cultural interactions.
Sociality Corollary: Construing another's construction processes allows for social interaction and role-playing.

Dimensions of Transition: Psychological Phenomena and Cycles

Threat: Awareness of imminent comprehensive change in core structures.
Fear: Similar to threat, but involves a new incidental construct rather than a comprehensive one.
Guilt: Perception of dislodgment from one's core role structure.
Anxiety: Recognition that events are outside our constructs' range of convenience. These phenomena challenge the self.
Aggressiveness: Active elaboration of one's perceptual field to control events.
Hostility: Continued effort to validate failed predictions at the expense of others.
C-P-C Cycle: Circumspection (wary consideration), Preemption (choosing a construct), Control (the consequence of the first two steps).
Creativity Cycle: Loose constructions, tightened, then validated. Creativity requires starting with loose constructions.

Supplemental Materials

Videos on George Kelly's Personal Construct Theory are available online, covering his biography, constructive alternativism, corollaries, abnormal development, experience cycle, and repertory test.

Client-Centered Therapy (Person-Centered Therapy)

Developed by Carl Rogers, it's a non-directive approach prioritizing client autonomy and self-discovery.
Focuses on removing obstacles to facilitate personal growth and development.
Emphasizes client responsibility and self-understanding.
Rogers pioneered recording and publishing complete psychotherapy case studies.

Self-Concept in Rogers' Personality Theory

The organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.
Encompasses self-image, self-esteem, and ideal self.
Shaped by childhood experiences and evaluations from others.
Congruence between self-image and ideal self fosters high self-worth; incongruence leads to anxiety and tension.

Positive Regard and Self-Worth

Two basic needs identified by Rogers: positive regard from others and self-worth.
High self-worth is characterized by confidence, acceptance of challenges and setbacks, and openness.
Low self-worth involves avoidance of challenges, difficulty accepting negative emotions, and defensiveness.
Developed in early childhood through interactions with parents and significant others.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Acceptance and love without judgment or criticism, regardless of actions or mistakes.
Fosters self-worth and positive outcomes.
Used in therapy to compensate for childhood deficiencies and promote healthier self-esteem.
Enables risk-taking, experimentation, and personal growth.
While valuable, presents challenges in implementation and potential for inauthenticity.

Congruence and Incongruence

Congruence: consistency between ideal self and actual experience.
Incongruence: discrepancy between ideal self and actual experience, causing psychological distress.
Defense mechanisms like denial and repression may be used to manage incongruence.
Unconditional positive regard promotes congruence and facilitates self-actualization.

Self-Actualization

Innate human motivation to fulfill one’s potential.
Requires positive self-regard and congruence between ideal self and self-image.
Influenced by both internal factors (self-concept) and external environment.
Rogers believed humans are inherently good and creative, becoming destructive only under adverse conditions.

The Fully Functioning Person

Represents the ideal outcome of self-actualization.
Characterized by self-awareness, openness to experience, continuous growth, and adaptability.
Viewed as an ongoing process, not a final state.
Often associated with high achievement, however, criticized for being a culturally specific ideal (Western emphasis).

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Explore the concepts of operant conditioning through continuous and partial reinforcement schedules. Learn how different reinforcement schedules affect learning and response rates. This quiz will test your understanding of the key principles and examples of operant conditioning.