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Questions and Answers

What is emphasized as essential for ensuring the reliability and validity of research findings?

Relying solely on participant feedback

Conducting studies with minimal oversight

Utilizing qualitative methods exclusively

Careful research design (correct)

Which research design is NOT mentioned as being discussed regarding strengths and weaknesses?

Cross-sectional studies

Experimental designs (correct)

Quasi-experimental designs

Longitudinal studies

What core ethical principle is central to informed consent in social research?

Balancing risks and benefits (correct)

Participants' preference for anonymity

Mandatory participation in studies

Maximizing researcher benefit

Which of the following is a primary concern in the ethical conduct of social research?

Respecting participant autonomy Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of validity in research primarily refer to?

The accuracy of the findings Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic distinguishing quasi-experiments from true experiments?

Quasi-experiments do not assign participants randomly. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of explanation aims to establish generalizable principles and is commonly used in quantitative research?

Nomothetic explanations Signup and view all the answers

What limitation is associated with cross-sectional designs when analyzing relationships between variables?

They do not establish causality. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of research designs, what is a primary advantage of using quasi-experiments?

They can be conducted in real-world settings. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is crucial for ensuring the accuracy and relevance of research results in survey design?

Minimizing biases and careful planning. Signup and view all the answers

What type of research design is specifically beneficial for understanding current social conditions?

Cross-sectional designs Signup and view all the answers

What is a common challenge faced when using quasi-experimental designs?

Pre-existing differences between groups being compared. Signup and view all the answers

What determines the choice of research design according to researchers' goals?

The types of questions being asked. Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main advantages of using focus groups over individual interviews?

They encourage group interaction, which can reveal deeper insights. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is crucial for ensuring the accuracy of qualitative data interpretations?

Member checking with participants. Signup and view all the answers

How do qualitative interviews differ from ethnography in terms of data collection?

Qualitative interviews offer in-depth data, while ethnography provides broader contextual insights. Signup and view all the answers

What role does qualitative interviewing play in gathering information?

It helps verify data from other sources while gathering unobservable information. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of interview is specifically designed for collecting data related to social phenomena?

Informant interviews. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects the key difference between objectivism and constructionism in ontology?

Objectivism holds that social phenomena exist independently of personal beliefs. Signup and view all the answers

In quantitative research, which step follows hypothesis development?

Operationalization Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of reliability in quantitative research?

It measures the consistency of results across different contexts over time. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary aim of quantitative research as described in the content?

To accurately measure variables and establish causality. Signup and view all the answers

Which one of the following is a characteristic of interval variables in quantitative research?

They have meaningful differences but no true zero. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following concepts is crucial for ensuring that a quantitative study measures what it intends to measure?

Validity Signup and view all the answers

The central limit theorem is significant in quantitative research because it explains:

How large sample sizes influence the predictability of the mean. Signup and view all the answers

What ensures that numerical data collected through structured methods is consistent and credible?

Reliability and measurement. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of variables involves categories without intrinsic order, such as hair color or gender?

Categorical variables Signup and view all the answers

Which stage is involved in transforming abstract concepts into measurable variables in quantitative research?

Operationalization Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of institutional ethnography?

Power dynamics within institutional structures Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of purposive sampling in ethnography?

Focusing on rich data sources for in-depth understanding Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes covert access from overt access in ethnographic research?

Covert access allows for natural interactions but raises ethical concerns Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of field notes in ethnographic research?

To record observations and interactions in the field Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of ethnographic research is emphasized as central to fieldwork?

Balancing extended immersion with practical constraints Signup and view all the answers

What role do analytic memos play in ethnographic research?

They connect raw data with researcher interpretation Signup and view all the answers

How do good field note habits contribute to ethnographic inquiry?

They enhance the clarity and quality of observational data Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the relationship between the lecture and the chapters on ethnography?

They provide complementary perspectives on ethnography Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of qualitative research as indicated in the content?

Understanding social life through participants’ perspectives Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the criteria used to evaluate qualitative research?

Reliability Signup and view all the answers

Which qualitative research method emphasizes collaboration with those affected by social issues?

Participatory action research Signup and view all the answers

What type of coding involves creating basic labels from data in qualitative research?

Open coding Signup and view all the answers

Which approach highlights the importance of context, examining texts within their social and historical environments?

Hermeneutics Signup and view all the answers

Which method of content analysis emphasizes both qualitative and quantitative interpretations?

Ethnographic content analysis Signup and view all the answers

What is a key challenge facing qualitative researchers as discussed in the content?

Managing researcher bias Signup and view all the answers

What type of coding brings together basic labels into larger themes in qualitative data analysis?

Axial coding Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following aspects differentiates qualitative analysis from traditional research evaluations?

Dynamic understanding of social processes Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of coding in qualitative research as presented in the lecture?

To simplify data into manageable categories for deeper analysis Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

General Research Orientations

Two main approaches to social research are Quantitative and Qualitative.
Quantitative research uses numbers, measurement, and statistical analysis.
Qualitative research focuses on understanding meaning and subjective interpretations.
The relationship between theory and research is key.
Epistemological and ontological concerns are central to research.
Values, politics, and practical issues influence research.
Deductive (theory-testing) and inductive (theory-building) approaches are crucial.

Chapter Goals and Learning Outcomes

The chapter distinguishes between deductive and inductive approaches.
Different social science perspectives like positivism, interpretivism, and critical approaches are explained.
The role of values, politics, and practical considerations in research is emphasized.
Quantitative research is generally deductive, focusing on hypothesis testing and statistical analysis.
Qualitative research is typically inductive, aiming to understand subjective realities.

The Nature of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research uses numerical data to investigate social phenomena.
It involves deductive reasoning: theory formulation, hypothesis testing, data collection, analysis.
Measurement is critical for accuracy and reliability in quantitative research.
Steps in quantitative research include theory formulation, hypothesis development, research design, operationalization, data collection, data analysis, and conclusions.
Variables like categorical, ordinal, interval, and ratio are important parts of quantitative research.
Goals include accurate measurement, establishing causality, and generalizability of findings.

Survey Design

Survey design involves structured interviews and self-administered questionnaires.
Two survey formats are interviews and questionnaires.
Types of questions include open-ended (allowing respondents to answer in their own words) and closed-ended (with predefined options).
Challenges in question design include avoiding ambiguous or double-barreled questions.
Survey administration methods include telephone, face-to-face, and online surveys.
Error reduction can involve pre-testing questions and using vignettes.

Quantitative Sampling

Sampling involves selecting a subset of a population for study.
Probability sampling, including simple random, systematic, stratified, and multi-stage cluster sampling are discussed.
Non-probability sampling methods, including convenience and snowball sampling, are also mentioned.
Sampling challenges like incomplete sampling frames, sampling error, and insufficient sample sizes are highlighted.
Larger sample sizes generally improve the reliability and accuracy of findings.
Response rates influence the representativeness of samples.
Strategies like follow-up surveys and incentives can improve response rates.

Research Designs

Research design provides a framework for data collection and analysis.
The choice depends on research goals (identifying causal relationships, understanding how phenomena evolve, exploring meanings).
Nomothetic explanations aim for generalizable principles; idiographic explanations aim for detailed descriptions of specific cases.
Quasi-experiments are a research design similar to true experiments but lack random assignment.

Experimental Research

Reliability assesses consistency and validity checks accuracy of measurement instruments.
Key aspects of experimental research include test-retest reliability, internal consistency, item-total reliability, content validity, criterion validity (predictive and concurrent), and construct validity (convergent and divergent).
Threats to internal validity include the placebo effect, the Hawthorne effect, maturation, and mortality.
Observer bias and interactions between researcher and participants are also highlighted.

Ethnography

Ethnography is a qualitative research method emphasizing immersive observation of a group or setting.
Ethnographers balance observation and interaction (complete participant, participant as observer, observer as participant, complete observer).
Data are collected through field notes, audio recordings, photographs, and analytic memos.
This is an inductive method.
Strategies for gaining access to groups or settings is crucial, including overt and covert approaches.
Institutional ethnography examines power dynamics within organizations.
Sampling in ethnographic research is typically purposive.
Field notes are vital for detailed observations and reactions, and analytic memos help researchers develop interpretations.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research values participants' perspectives, rich descriptions, and understanding context.
Content analysis focuses on interpreting communication.
Coding is a key process in content analysis, offering a framework to analyze data.
Different types of coding (open, axial, selective) are described.

Ethics

Ethical considerations are central to research, including respect for persons, concern for welfare, and justice; participant autonomy; balancing risks and benefits; and equity in research burden and benefits.
Informed consent is crucial to ensure participants' voluntary participation.
Researchers are responsible to ensure sensitive data is securely handled.
Ethical considerations in qualitative research (data access, member checks, ensuring accurate representation), are highlighted.
Ethics in online and internet-based research are addressed.

Interviewing Techniques

Interviewing is a crucial qualitative method for gathering in-depth data.
Structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews are explored.
Interview guides are helpful for semi-structured interviews.
Focus groups provide another method for collecting data through group interaction.
Issues relating to researcher bias, interviewer effects, and time management are addressed.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is often not generalizable to a wider population.
Quantitative data analysis is suitable for making generalizations to larger populations.
Credibility and member validation are highlighted for ensuring qualitative research quality.
Replicability is difficult in qualitative research.
Data collection and analysis in qualitative methods is time-intensive.

Transcending Quantitative/Qualitative Divide

Overcoming the divide and integrating quantitative and qualitative data is important for comprehensive research.

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