Psychology: Reinforcement Schedules and Learning

Reinforcement Schedules

• Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses. Example: A worker gets paid after every 10 items produced. Response pattern: High and consistent.
• Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses. Example: A slot machine pays out randomly. Response pattern: High and consistent, without predictable pauses.
• Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement occurs after a set amount of time. Example: A weekly paycheck. Response pattern: Scalloped pattern – increases as the reinforcement time approaches, with a pause after reinforcement.

Types of Learning

• Classical Conditioning: Learning through associating stimuli, creating a conditioned response. Example: Pavlov's dogs salivating to a bell. Key concept: Association of stimuli.
• Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (reinforcement or punishment) of behavior. Example: A child cleans their room to receive a reward. Key concept: Reinforcement/punishment.
• Observational Learning: Learning by imitating others. Example: A child learns to speak through observing parents. Key concept: Modeling/imitation.
• Cognitive Learning: Learning involving mental processes like thinking, reasoning, and memory. Example: Solving a puzzle by thinking through it. Key concept: Mental processes (attention, memory, reasoning).
• Latent Learning: Learning that becomes apparent later without immediate reinforcement. Example: Learning a school route and using it later.
• Insight Learning: Sudden realization of a solution to a problem. Example: Solving a problem after a period of confusion. Key concept: Sudden insight/Aha moment.
• Implicit Learning: Learning without conscious awareness, often automatic. Example: Learning to ride a bike. Key concept: Unconscious learning.
• Explicit Learning: Intentional and conscious learning. Example: Studying for an exam. Key concept: Conscious learning.

Stimulus Generalization

• Definition: A tendency for a conditioned response to occur to stimuli that are similar to, but not identical to, the conditioned stimulus.
• Examples: A dog conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell may also salivate at the sound of a doorbell. A child who fears a white rat might generalize this fear to white rabbits.
• Influencing Factors: Similarity of stimuli, strength of original stimulus, and learning history.
• Generalization Gradient: Gradual decrease in response strength as the new stimulus becomes less similar to the original.

Positive/Negative Reinforcement/Punishment

• Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior.
  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus. Example: Giving a treat for doing homework.
  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus. Example: Turning off an alarm when getting out of bed.
• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
  • Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus. Example: Scolding a child for misbehaving.
  • Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus. Example: Taking away a toy.

Memory Processes

• Encoding: Converting sensory input into a usable form for storage.
  • Visual Encoding: Storing images.
  • Acoustic Encoding: Storing sounds (especially language)
  • Semantic Encoding: Storing meaning of information.
• Storage: Retention of encoded information over time
  • Sensory Memory: Brief sensory input; auditory and visual
  • Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited-capacity, short-duration storage; rehearsal extends its duration.
  • Long-Term Memory (LTM): Relatively permanent storage with potentially unlimited capacity.
• Retrieval: Accessing and using stored information.
  • Recall: Retrieving information without cues.
  • Recognition: Identifying information when presented.
  • Relearning: Reacquiring information faster than initial learning (often).

Forgetting

• Decay: Gradual loss of memory traces over time.
• Interference: Old memories interfering with new learning or vice-versa.
  • Proactive Interference: Old learning interferes with new learning.
  • Retroactive Interference: New learning interferes with old learning.
• Failure in Encoding/Retrieval: Ineffective encoding or insufficient retrieval cues.

Factors Influencing Intelligence

• Genetic: Heredity influences intelligence, but environmental factors play a significant role in development, and gene-environment interactions affect intelligence.
• Environmental: Education, socioeconomic status (SES), nutrition, access to resources, cultural values, language, test bias, and brain structure/function all influence intelligence.
• Psychological: Motivation, self-efficacy, stress impact performance and learning, and brain structure/health.
• Environmental: Significant developmental periods like early childhood, stress, and trauma can negatively impact IQ, and, conversely, access to technologies and resources can enhance learning potential.

Explore the concepts of reinforcement schedules and types of learning in psychology. This quiz covers fixed and variable ratios, fixed intervals, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning. Test your understanding of these fundamental principles.