PSY Note Final 1 PDF

Chapters 1-4: Individualistic vs. collectivistic cultures What types of work are psychologists involved in? Case study vs. survey vs. correlational research vs. experimental research vs. naturalistic observation  Placebo effect, control group, experimental group How T...

Chapters 1-4: Individualistic vs. collectivistic cultures What types of work are psychologists involved in? Case study vs. survey vs. correlational research vs. experimental research vs. naturalistic observation  Placebo effect, control group, experimental group How They Work Together: Researchers compare the experimental group (which gets the treatment) to the control group (which gets a placebo or no treatment). The placebo effect helps ensure that any improvements seen in the experimental group are due to the treatment itself and not just participants' expectations. This design strengthens the validity of the study by distinguishing real treatment effects from psychological or other external influences.  Dependent vs. independent variable Scenario: A researcher is studying the effect of sleep on test performance. Independent Variable: The amount of sleep participants get (e.g., 4, 6, or 8 hours). Dependent Variable: The participants' test scores. Know how chemical messages are sent and received within the brain (axons, dendrites, neurotransmitters, etc.) Wernicke’s area vs. Broca’s area  Central nervous system Importance of amygdala Parasympathetic, autonomic, sympathetic  Fovea, cones, rods, cornea Transductions – understand the process within the ear Absolute threshold vs. stimulus threshold Chapters 5-8 Variable/fixed ratio/interval  Types of learning Stimulus generalization  Positive/negative reinforcement or punishment Operant and classical conditioning Primary vs. secondary reinforcers Strategies for learning  Semantic vs. procedural vs. episodic memory Semantic memory is about what you know (facts and knowledge). Procedural memory is about how you do things (skills and habits). Episodic memory is about what you've experienced (personal events). Processes of memory 1. Encoding  Definition: The process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored in the brain. Types: o Visual Encoding: Storing images. o Acoustic Encoding: Storing sounds, particularly language. o Semantic Encoding: Storing the meaning of information. Factors Influencing Encoding: o Attention: Focus improves encoding. o Depth of Processing: Deep, meaningful analysis of information improves retention. 2. Storage Definition: The retention of encoded information over time. Types of Storage: 1. Sensory Memory: § Retains sensory input for a fraction of a second. § E.g., iconic memory (visual), echoic memory (auditory). 2. Short-Term Memory (STM): § Stores limited information (7±2 items) for a brief period (about 20-30 seconds). § Can be extended through rehearsal. 3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): § Stores information indefinitely with potentially unlimited capacity. § Types of LTM: § Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Facts and events. § Semantic Memory: Knowledge of facts. § Episodic Memory: Personal experiences. § Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory: Skills and habits. § Procedural Memory: Motor skills like riding a bike. § Emotional Conditioning: Learned responses to emotional events. 3. Retrieval Definition: Accessing and using stored information. Processes: o Recall: Retrieving information without cues (e.g., answering a question). o Recognition: Identifying information when presented (e.g., multiple-choice test). o Relearning: Regaining knowledge that was previously forgotten, often quicker than initial learning. Factors Influencing Retrieval: o Retrieval Cues: Triggers that prompt memory (e.g., smells, sounds). o State-Dependent Memory: Retrieval is easier when in the same emotional or physical state as during encoding. o Context-Dependent Memory: Retrieval improves in the environment where the memory was formed. 4. Forgetting (Optional Process) Forgetting can occur due to: o Decay: Loss of memory traces over time. o Interference: § Proactive Interference: Old memories hinder new learning. § Retroactive Interference: New learning disrupts old memories. o Failure in Encoding or Retrieval: Poor attention or insufficient cues. Functional fixedness Schemas, heuristics, scripts Crystalized intelligence vs. fluid intelligence  Validity vs. reliability Factors that influence intelligence