Psychology Chapter on Experiments and Causation

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Questions and Answers

What was the main finding of Max's experiment regarding the experimenter's friendliness?

Participants rated the experimenter as friendlier when her hands were warm. (correct)

Participants rated the experimenter as less friendly when she had warm hands.

Participants' ratings were consistent regardless of the experimenter's hand temperature.

Participants did not notice any difference in friendliness based on hand temperature.

Which aspect of Max's experiment contributes to the causal criterion of temporal precedence?

The experimenter was only rated one time by each participant.

The same experimenter used identical greetings for all participants.

Participants were randomly assigned to different hand temperature conditions.

All participants rated the experimenter after shaking hands. (correct)

Which variable served as a control variable in Max's experiment?

The temperature of the experimenter's hands (warm or cold).

The standard greeting used by the experimenter. (correct)

The order in which participants rated friendliness.

The participant's previous experience with handshakes.

What was the role of random assignment in Max's experimental design?

It was used to assign conditions that might affect the friendliness ratings. Signup and view all the answers

What type of experimental design did Max likely use in his study?

Between-subjects design. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of conducting experiments in psychological studies?

To establish causal claims about interventions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately distinguishes between independent-groups and within-groups designs?

Independent-groups assign participants to different conditions, while within-groups use the same participants across conditions Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the three potential threats to internal validity?

Selection effects Signup and view all the answers

Why might a researcher decide to use within-groups design?

It provides a clearer comparison of treatment effects Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes a causal claim?

It implies that one variable influences another Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic feature of experiments that supports causal claims?

They manipulate independent variables. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of note-taking, what does the causal inference suggest about using laptops?

Laptops lead to less effective learning than traditional note-taking methods Signup and view all the answers

What might be a reason for the emphasis on interventions in psychological studies?

They can directly influence real-world behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant flaw in the informal study about dogs and hugging conducted by the psychology blogger?

The study lacked a control group for comparison. Signup and view all the answers

Why is an experiment considered a better source of information than personal experience?

Experiments provide a comparison group. Signup and view all the answers

What is necessary for establishing covariance in a study?

Manipulating an independent variable. Signup and view all the answers

What does it indicate if results from a study show no difference between two conditions?

The independent variable has no impact. Signup and view all the answers

What is one way an independent variable might be designed to show covariance?

Creating multiple treatment and control groups. Signup and view all the answers

Which question illustrates the importance of comparison in research?

Compared to what? Signup and view all the answers

How can the results of an experiment help in understanding cause-effect relationships?

By manipulating variables and observing outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding true experiments?

They involve manipulating an independent variable at multiple levels. Signup and view all the answers

What was the independent variable in Harlow's study involving baby monkeys and their preference for mothers?

The type of mother presented Signup and view all the answers

What is a key advantage of within-groups designs?

It eliminates concerns of individual differences Signup and view all the answers

In the context of within-groups design, what is meant by the phrase 'acting as her own control'?

Each participant experiences all conditions of the study Signup and view all the answers

How does a matched-groups design relate to a within-groups design?

Matched-groups designs can treat participants as their own control. Signup and view all the answers

What factor did the Quinn team control for in their study regarding infants' preferences for male or female faces?

Personal variables across both groups Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between within-groups designs and independent-groups designs?

Within-groups designs test the same participants in all conditions. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant implication of using a within-groups design for researchers?

It decreases the likelihood of measurement error Signup and view all the answers

Why might researchers prefer a within-groups design over an independent-groups design?

It controls for personal differences better than random assignment. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key advantage of within-groups designs over independent-groups designs?

They treat each participant as their own control. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines a concurrent-measures design?

Participants indicate a preference for one level while exposed to multiple levels simultaneously. Signup and view all the answers

What does interrogating construct validity entail?

Assessing whether variables were manipulated and measured consistent with the theory. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential drawback of within-groups designs?

They may introduce demand characteristics and order effects. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of interrogating statistical validity in an experiment?

Asking about effect size and precision of estimates. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes random assignment?

A procedure used to assign participants to different conditions without bias. Signup and view all the answers

What is an outcome of using counterbalancing in a repeated-measures design?

To equate the conditions presented to participants. Signup and view all the answers

What is a design confound?

An unintended variable that systematically varies alongside the independent variable. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Experiments and Causal Claims

Experiments are the only way to investigate and support causal claims.
Experiments aim to establish causation by manipulating an independent variable and observing its effect on a dependent variable.
Causal claims are stronger than correlational claims because they imply a cause-and-effect relationship.

Types of Experiments

Independent-groups designs: Participants are randomly assigned to different groups, each receiving a different level of the independent variable.
- Posttest-only design: Participants are tested on the dependent variable only after exposure to the independent variable.
- Pretest/posttest design: Participants are tested on the dependent variable before and after exposure to the independent variable.
Within-groups designs: All participants receive all levels of the independent variable.
- Repeated-measures design: Participants are tested on the dependent variable after each exposure to a different level of the independent variable.
- Concurrent-measures design: Participants are exposed to all levels of the independent variable at the same time and indicate a preference for one level.

Threats to Internal Validity

Design confounds: A variable other than the independent variable systematically varies with the independent variable, making it impossible to determine which variable is responsible for the effect.
Selection effects: Participants in different groups are not equivalent at the start of the study, making it difficult to attribute differences in the dependent variable to the independent variable.
- Random assignment helps to minimize selection effects.
- Matched groups can be used when random assignment is not possible, but participants should be carefully matched on relevant characteristics.
Order effects: Exposure to one level of the independent variable influences the participant's response to other levels.
- Counterbalancing can be used to control for order effects by presenting the levels of the independent variable in different orders to different participants.
  - Full counterbalancing: All possible orders are used.
  - Partial counterbalancing: Only some of the possible orders are used, such as a Latin square.

Controlling for Confounding Variables

Control variables: Variables held constant across all conditions to ensure that only the independent variable is systematically varying.
Placebo group: Participants receive a fake treatment or intervention, helping to isolate the effects of the independent variable from the effects of expectations or beliefs.

Evaluating Experimental Designs

Construct validity: The variables are measured and manipulated in ways that reflect the intended concepts.
External validity: The results can be generalized to other populations, settings, and times.
Statistical validity: The effect size, precision of the estimate (95% confidence interval), and replicability of the results are considered.
Internal validity: The independent variable is the only plausible explanation for the changes in the dependent variable.

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Description

Explore the concepts of experiments and their role in establishing causal claims in this psychology chapter. Delve into different experimental designs, including independent-groups and within-groups methods, to understand how researchers manipulate variables. Gain insights into the strength of causal versus correlational conclusions.