Psychology Chapter on Consciousness and Sleep

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Questions and Answers

What best defines waking consciousness?

A stage that includes Rapid Eye Movement

A state with fuzzy thoughts and divided attention

A state influenced by the sleep-wake cycle

A state with clear, organized thoughts and sensations (correct)

What role does the suprachiasmatic nucleus play in the body?

It repairs cellular damage during sleep

It measures brain wave activity

It secretes melatonin to induce sleep

It regulates the sleep-wake cycle (correct)

Which brain wave pattern is associated with deep sleep?

Theta Waves

Alpha Waves

Beta Waves

Delta Waves (correct)

What defines an altered state of consciousness?

Shifted quality or pattern of mental activity Signup and view all the answers

What are micro-sleeps?

Brief, unintended episodes of sleep lasting seconds Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of melatonin?

To promote sleepiness Signup and view all the answers

What does the restorative theory of sleep suggest?

Sleep facilitates physical health and cellular repair Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes REM sleep from NREM sleep?

REM sleep involves rapid eye movement Signup and view all the answers

Which drug is classified as a stimulant and a hallucinogen?

MDMA Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of sleep is characterized by hypnagogic images and hypnic jerks?

Non-REM Stage One Signup and view all the answers

What effect do depressants have on the nervous system?

Slow down nervous system activity Signup and view all the answers

What are sleep spindles associated with?

Non-REM Stage Two Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of non-REM sleep features pronounced delta waves?

Stage Three and Four Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a natural hallucinogen?

Psilocybin Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary medical use of morphine?

Suppressing pain Signup and view all the answers

In what way does REM sleep differ from non-REM sleep?

It features high levels of brain activity. Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when a person experiences a dream after being deprived of REM sleep?

REM Rebound Signup and view all the answers

Which of these substances is recognized as a depressant despite often being seen as a stimulant?

Alcohol Signup and view all the answers

Which drug is directly derived from the opium poppy?

Heroin Signup and view all the answers

What is a common non-REM sleep disorder characterized by walking or moving during deep sleep?

Sleepwalking Signup and view all the answers

What substance is classified as a mild hallucinogen derived from the cannabis plant?

Marijuana Signup and view all the answers

Which case involved a successful defense of sleepwalking in a murder charge?

Kenneth Parks Case Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of narcotics?

They suppress pain Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining characteristic of sleep apnea?

Pauses in breathing during sleep Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of learning?

Any relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience or practice. Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes a stimulus that naturally triggers an involuntary response?

Unconditioned Stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is a Conditioned Response (CR)?

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What does the principle of stimulus generalization imply?

Responses can occur to stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by the term extinction in classical conditioning?

The weakening or disappearance of the conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is false regarding the principles of classical conditioning?

Repeated pairings of the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are unnecessary. Signup and view all the answers

What is a reinforcer in the context of behavior modification?

Any event or object that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. Signup and view all the answers

Who is credited with discovering classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of neurofeedback?

To help regulate brainwave patterns Signup and view all the answers

What concept is demonstrated by Tolman's experiment?

Learning can happen even without immediate reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'learned helplessness' refer to?

The resignation after repeated failures or negative events Signup and view all the answers

Which element is NOT part of the four elements of observational learning?

Reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

In Seligman's experiment with dogs, what consequence did the uncontrollable shocks have?

Dogs were less likely to escape when they could Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes 'insight' in learning?

A sudden understanding leading to a solution Signup and view all the answers

In Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment, what was primarily being tested?

The influence of observational learning on behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about cognitive learning theory is true?

It emphasizes the importance of mental processes in learning Signup and view all the answers

What is the formula used to calculate the Intelligence Quotient (IQ)?

Mental Age / Chronological Age x 100 Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following tests is widely recognized for measuring intelligence?

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test Signup and view all the answers

What does standardization in IQ testing ensure?

Fairness and reliability of the test across various groups Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a valid IQ test from an invalid one?

It accurately measures what it intends to measure Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes a test that provides consistent scores but does not measure intelligence accurately?

Reliable but Invalid Signup and view all the answers

What is the mean and standard deviation of the Deviation IQ Scores?

Mean of 100, Standard Deviation of 15 Signup and view all the answers

What classification is used for mental retardation based on IQ scores?

Mild, Moderate, Severe, and Profound Signup and view all the answers

What is NOT a characteristic of individuals with mental retardation?

Average or above-average intellectual functioning Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Consciousness and Levels of Consciousness

Consciousness: A person's awareness of everything around them.
Waking Consciousness: Characterized by clear thoughts, feelings, and sensations with alertness.
Altered State of Consciousness: Mental activity shifts from waking consciousness (e.g., fuzzy thoughts, divided thoughts, increased alertness).

Necessity of Sleep

Circadian Rhythm: A 24-hour cycle of bodily rhythms, including sleep-wake cycles.
Hypothalamus: A brain region that influences the glandular system and controls the sleep-wake cycle.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: The internal clock, located in the hypothalamus, that regulates wake and sleep cycles.
Melatonin: A hormone from the pineal gland that promotes sleepiness.
Sleep Needs: Adults typically need 7-9 hours for optimal functioning.
Micro-sleeps: Brief, unintended episodes of sleep.
Sleep Deprivation: Significant sleep loss leads to concentration and irritability problems.

Adaptive and Restorative Theories of Sleep

Adaptive Theory: Sleep evolved to avoid predators when most active.
Restorative Theory: Sleep is crucial for physical health and cellular repair.

Brain Wave Patterns

Electroencephalograph (EEG): A device to measure brain wave activity during sleep.
Alpha Waves: Associated with relaxation or light sleep.

Stages of Sleep

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep: Eyes move rapidly, often accompanied by vivid dreams.
Non-REM (NREM) Sleep: The stages of sleep that do not include REM.
Non-REM Stage One: Light sleep with hypnagogic images (vivid visual events) or hypnic jerks (involuntary muscle twitches).
Non-REM Stage Two: Characterized by sleep spindles, brief bursts of brain activities.
Non-REM Stage Three and Four: Deep sleep, marked by pronounced delta waves.

8-Hour Sleep Cycle

Sleep Cycle: A typical sleep cycle lasts approximately 90 minutes.
Stage Four: Deep sleep is prominent earlier in the night.
REM Sleep: Increases in duration as the night progresses.
Presleep: The transition phase before sleep, characterized by alpha waves.

Stage Four Sleep Disorders

Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Walking or moving around during sleep.
Night Terrors: Extreme fear, screaming, or running around in deep sleep without waking.

REM Sleep and Dreaming

Paradoxical Sleep: High brain activity during REM sleep despite the body being still.
Dream Recall: Dream reports are common following REM sleep.
REM Rebound: Increased REM sleep after periods of sleep deprivation.
Nightmares: Bad dreams during REM sleep.
REM Behavior Disorder: Failure of the normal paralysis of the body during REM sleep, allowing the person to act out their dreams.

Can Sleepwalking be a Crime Defense?

Kenneth Parks Case: Case where a man accused of murder successfully argued sleepwalking as a defense.
Scott Falater Case: Case where the claim of sleepwalking was not successful as a defense.

Problems During Sleep

Insomnia: Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
Sleep Apnea: Disruptions in breathing during sleep.
Narcolepsy: Sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep.
Cataplexy: Sudden loss of muscle tone triggered by strong emotions.

CPAP Therapy

CPAP Therapy: A treatment for sleep apnea that uses continuous positive airway pressure to keep the airway open.

Common Sleep Disorders

Somnambulism (Sleepwalking): Walking or moving around while asleep.
Night Terrors: Experiencing extreme fear, screaming, or running during deep sleep.
Restless Leg Syndrome: Uncomfortable sensations in the legs causing movement.
Nocturnal Leg Cramps: Painful cramps in calf or foot muscles.
Hypersomnia: Excessive daytime sleepiness.
Circadian Rhythm Disorders: Disruptions in sleep-wake cycle (e.g., jet lag, shift work).
Enuresis (Bedwetting): Urinating while asleep.

Dreams

Freud's Theory of Dreams: Dreams as wish fulfillment.
Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis: Dreams are the brain trying to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep.
Activation-Information-Mode Model (AIM): Waking experiences can influence dream content.

Psychoactive Drugs

Psychoactive Drugs: Substances that alter thinking, perception, and memory.
Physical Dependence: Body's need for a drug.
Psychological Dependence: Craving for the drug.

Stimulants

Cocaine: Produces euphoria, energy, and pleasure.
Nicotine: Active ingredient in tobacco.
Caffeine: Stimulant in coffee, tea, sodas, chocolate.

Harmful Effects of Nicotine

Nicotine Addiction: High addictive potential.
Nicotine Patch: Controlled nicotine delivery.

Average Caffeine Content

Information on caffeine in various beverages and food.

Depressants

Depressants: Drugs that slow down nervous system activity.
Barbiturates: Sedative effect.
Benzodiazepines: Reduce anxiety.

Alcohol

Alcohol: A chemical produced from plant materials.
Depressant Effects: Alcohol can be perceived as a stimulant—though its primary effect is depressive.

Blood Alcohol Level and Behavior

Blood Alcohol Content (BAC): Relationship between drinks, BAC, and behavioral effects.

Narcotics

Narcotics: Opium-related drugs suppressing pain.
Opium: Source of narcotics
Morphine: Medicine for severe pain.
Heroin: Highly addictive narcotic.

Hallucinogens

Psychogenic Drugs: Drugs producing hallucinations.
LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide): A powerful synthetic hallucinogen.
PCP (Phencyclidine): A drug with stimulant, depressant or narcotic, and hallucinogenic effects.
MDMA (Ecstasy or X): A drug with stimulant and hallucinogenic effects.
Mescaline: Hallucinogen from the peyote cactus.
Psilocybin: Hallucinogen found in certain mushrooms.

Marijuana

Marijuana: Hallucinogen from cannabis plant.
Medical Marijuana: Used for some medical conditions.

How Drugs Affect Consciousness

Drug Classification: Categorization of drugs based on their effects on consciousness.
Depressants: Reduce nervous system activity.
Stimulants: Increase nervous system activity.

Learning

Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior from experience or practice.
Brain Changes: Learning involves physical changes in the brain.
Behavior Modification: Any changes in an organism's behavior.

Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov: Discovered classical conditioning.
Classical Conditioning: Learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus.
Unconditioned Stimulus: Naturally occurring stimulus that triggers an involuntary response.
Unconditioned Response: Involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus: Previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response: Learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
Pavlov's Classic Experiment in Conditioning: Conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell.
Acquisition: Learning the association between CS and UCS.

Classical Conditioning Concepts

Principles of Classical Conditioning: (CS must precede the UCS; CS and UCS close in time; repeated pairings of CS and UCS; CS distinct from other stimuli)
Stimulus Generalization:Responding similarly to similar stimuli.
Stimulus Discrimination:Differentiating between stimuli.
Extinction:Weakening or disappearance of conditioned response when CS is repeated without UCS
Reinforcer: Event or object increasing the likelihood of a behavior.
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of extinguished CR after a period of rest.
Higher-Order Conditioning: Pairing a new, neutral stimulus with an already conditioned stimulus

Conditioned Emotional Response

Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): Emotional response becomes associated with a learned stimulus.
Phobias: Irrational fears developed through CERs.
Conditioning of "Little Albert": Fear conditioning.

Taste Aversion

Vicarious Conditioning: Learning through observing others.
Conditioned Taste Aversion: Strong aversion to particular taste associated with illness.
Biological Preparedness: The tendency to learn certain associations faster.

Why Classical Conditioning Works

Stimulus Substitution Theory: The CS substitutes the UCS.
Cognitive Perspective: Expectations and predictions influence conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning: Behavior is influenced by its consequences.
Thorndike's Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Thorndike Puzzle Box: Demonstrates the principles of operant conditioning.
Skinner's Contribution to Operant Conditioning: Significance of observable behavior and consequences.

Operant Conditioning (continued)

Operant: Any voluntary behavior
Consequences: Learning is affected by consequences
Skinner Box: Controlled environment for studying operant conditioning
Reinforcement: Reward for a desired behavior (e.g., food for lever pressing).
Reinforcement: Any event that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
Primary Reinforcer: Naturally reinforcing stimulus (e.g., food, water).
Secondary Reinforcer: Reinforcing stimulus associated with a primary reinforcer (e.g., praise, money).
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.
Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.
Successive Approximations: Small steps in behavior reinforced.

Other Classical Conditioning Concepts

Extinction: Weakening or disappearance of a conditioned response(CS absent)
Generalization/Discrimination
Spontaneous recovery
Schedules of Reinforcement
Partial Reinforcement Effect: behaviors intermittently rewarded resist extinction more than continuously rewarded behaviors.
Fixed Ratio Schedule
Variable Ratio Schedule
Fixed Interval Schedule
Variable Interval Schedule
Punishment: Decreases behavior likelihood.
Punishment by Application(adding negative stimuli)
Punishment by Removal (taking away positive stimuli)

Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment by Removal

Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.
Punishment by Removal: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Four Ways to Modify Behavior

Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to strengthen a behavior
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to strengthen a behavior
Punishment by Application: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to weaken a behavior
Punishment by Removal: Removing a pleasant stimulus to weaken a behavior
How to Make Punishment More Effective (immediate, consistent, paired w/ reinforcement)

Operant Stimuli and Stimulus Control

Discriminative Stimulus: A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement for a particular behavior.
Stimulus Control: Learning to respond to a specific stimulus in a particular way due to association with reinforcement.

Behavior Resistant to Conditioning

Instinctive Drift: The tendency for animals to revert to genetically controlled behaviors.
Instinct: Innate unlearned behaviors that are difficult to change through conditioning.

Behavior Modification Techniques

Token Economy: System where desired behaviors are rewarded with tokens exchangeable for privileges
Time-Out: Temporary removal from a reinforcing environment
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): Behavior modification using shaping techniques.

Biofeedback and Neurofeedback

Biofeedback: Technique providing feedback about physiological responses for voluntary control.
Neurofeedback: uses brain-scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity, helping regulate brainwave patterns.

Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognitive Learning Theory: Emphasizes mental processes (thinking, problem solving & expectations)
Cognition: Mental processes inside a person's mind
Edward Tolman's Experiment & Contributions: Challenged behaviorist views—found that learning didn't always require immediate reinforcement

Latent Learning

Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not evident until later when reinforcement is introduced or needed.
Learned Helplessness: Passive resignation after repeated failures or uncontrollable negative events.
Seligman's Experiment: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness.

Insight

Insight: Sudden understanding of a problem leading to a solution (e.g., "Aha" moment).

Observational Learning

Observational Learning: Learning by observing the behaviors of others.
Learning/Performance Distinction: Learning can occur without immediate performance of the learned behavior.
Bandura's Classic Bobo Doll Study: Demonstrated the influence of observational learning on aggressive behavior

Four Elements of Observational Learning

Attention: Learners focus on the model.
Memory: Memorizing the modeled behavior.
Imitation: Reproducing the modeled behavior.
Motivation: Desire to perform the modeled behavior.

Cognitive Psychology: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language

Thinking (Cognition): Mental activity for organizing, understanding, and communicating information.
Mental Images: Mental representations like pictures of objects.
Concepts (Superordinate, Basic Level, Subordinate): Mental representations of categories and classes.
Problem-solving (Algorithms, Heuristics, Means-End Analysis, Insight)
Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures.
Heuristics: Mental shortcuts.
Means-End Analysis: Comparing a starting point to the desired goal to find a solution.
Insight: Sudden comprehension of a solution.

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence (AI): Creation of machines that behave like humans.
Human Thought Processes: Replication in machines is not yet achieved.

Problem-Solving Barriers

Functional Fixedness: Thinking about objects only in terms of typical functions.
Mental Set: Sticking with familiar problem-solving strategies even if ineffective.
Confirmation Bias: Seeking only confirming evidence while disregarding contradictory evidence.

IQ Tests

Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Score representing intelligence (mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100).
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test: Widely used IQ test.
Wechsler Intelligence Tests:IQ tests measuring verbal and performance abilities.
Intelligence: Ability to learn, acquire knowledge, and adapt/solve problems.

Development of IQ Tests

Standardization: Administering tests to diverse population for establishing norms.
Validity: Measuring what it's intended for.
Reliability: Consistency in scores.

Unreliable and Invalid Tests

Unreliable: Inconsistent scores
Invalid: Does not measure what it intends to

Reliable But Invalid Tests

Reliable: Consistent scores
Invalid: Does not accurately measure what it's intended for

Reliable and Valid Tests

Reliable: Consistent scores
Valid: Accurately measures what it's intended for