Consciousness: PDF

CONSCIOUSNESS - ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS Consciousness and Levels of Consciousness Consciousness: Defined as a person's awareness of everything happening around them at any given moment. Waking Consciousness: A state characterized by clear, organized thoughts, feelings,...

CONSCIOUSNESS - ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS Consciousness and Levels of Consciousness Consciousness: Defined as a person's awareness of everything happening around them at any given moment. Waking Consciousness: A state characterized by clear, organized thoughts, feelings, and sensations, with a sense of alertness. Altered State of Consciousness: A state where the quality or pattern of mental activity shifts compared to waking consciousness. This can involve fuzzy thoughts, divided thoughts, and increased alertness. Necessity of sleep Circadian Rhythm: A 24-hour cycle of bodily rhythms, including the sleep-wake cycle. Hypothalamus: A small brain region that influences the glandular system and controls the sleep-wake cycle. Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: Located within the hypothalamus, this acts as the internal clock that regulates when we wake up and fall asleep. Melatonin: A hormone secreted by the pineal gland, making us feel sleepy. Sleep Needs: Sleep requirements vary based on age and individual factors, with most adults needing 7-9 hours of sleep for optimal functioning. Micro-sleeps: Brief, unintended episodes of sleep lasting only a few seconds. Sleep Deprivation: Significant loss of sleep, leading to problems with concentration, irritability, and other cognitive impairments. Adaptive and Restorative Theories of Sleep Adaptive Theory: Proposes that sleep evolved to help animals and humans avoid predators by sleeping when they are most active. Restorative Theory: Suggests that sleep is essential for physical health, replenishing chemicals and repairing cellular damage. Brain Wave Patterns Electroencephalograph (EEG): A device used to measure brain wave activity, helping scientists understand the different stages of sleep. Alpha Waves: Associated with relaxation or light sleep.  Theta Waves: Indicate the early stages of sleep. Delta Waves: Characterize the deepest stage of sleep. Beta Waves: Present when a person is awake and mentally active, characterized by small, fast waves. Stages of Sleep Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep: A stage of sleep where the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids, often accompanied by vivid dreams. Non-REM (NREM) Sleep: Refers to the stages of sleep that do not include REM. Stages of Sleep (Non-REM) Non-REM Stage One: Light sleep, often accompanied by hypnagogic images (vivid visual events) or hypnic jerks (involuntary muscle twitches). Non-REM Stage Two: Characterized by sleep spindles, brief bursts of brain activity. Non-REM Stages Three and Four: Marked by pronounced delta waves, which indicate deep sleep. 8-Hour Sleep Cycle Sleep Cycle: A typical sleep cycle consists of four stages of NREM sleep followed by REM sleep, lasting approximately 90 minutes. Stage Four: Dominates the early part of the night, gradually decreasing in duration as the night progresses. REM Sleep: Increases in duration as the night goes on, becoming more prominent in the later stages. Sleep Stages and Brain Waves Presleep: The transition period before sleep, marked by alpha waves. Non-REM Sleep: Consists of four stages, with each stage characterized by distinct brain wave patterns. REM Sleep: Characterized by rapid eye movements and a return to brain wave patterns similar to those seen during waking. Stage Four Sleep Disorders Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Occurs during deep sleep, involving walking or moving around while asleep. Night Terrors: A relatively rare disorder characterized by extreme fear, screaming, or running around during deep sleep without waking fully. REM Sleep and Dreaming Paradoxical Sleep: REM sleep is considered paradoxical because it involves high levels of brain activity despite the body being relatively still. Dream Recall: People awakened during REM sleep often report having a dream. REM Rebound: Increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of it on previous nights. Nightmares: Bad dreams that occur during REM sleep. REM Behavior Disorder: A rare condition where the mechanism that normally paralyzes the body during REM sleep fails, allowing the person to act out their dreams. Can Sleepwalking be a Crime Defense? Kenneth Parks Case: A case where a man accused of murder claimed he was sleepwalking, and the defense successfully argued for his acquittal. Scott Falater Case: A case where a man accused of murder claimed sleepwalking, but the defense was unsuccessful, and he was convicted. Problems During Sleep Insomnia: Difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or experiencing restful sleep. Sleep Apnea: A disorder characterized by pauses in breathing during sleep. Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder where a person experiences sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep during the day. Cataplexy: A sudden loss of muscle tone, often triggered by strong emotions. CPAP Therapy CPAP Therapy: A treatment for sleep apnea that uses continuous positive airway pressure to keep the airway open during sleep. Common Sleep Disorders Somnambulism (Sleepwalking): Walking or moving around while asleep. Night Terrors: Experiencing extreme fear, screaming, or running around during deep sleep. Restless Leg Syndrome: Uncomfortable sensations in the legs that cause movement. Nocturnal Leg Cramps: Painful cramps in the calf or foot muscles. Hypersomnia: Excessive daytime sleepiness. Circadian Rhythm Disorders: Disruptions in the sleep-wake cycle, such as jet lag or shift work. Enuresis (Bedwetting): Urinating while asleep. Dreams Freud's Theory of Dreams: Dreams as wish fulfillment, with manifest content (the actual dream) and latent content (the hidden meaning). Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis: Dreams are generated by the brain attempting to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep. Activation-Information-Mode Model (AIM): A revised version of the activation-synthesis theory, proposing that waking experiences can influence dream content. Psychoactive Drugs Psychoactive Drugs: Substances that alter thinking, perception, and memory. Physical Dependence: The body's need for a drug, characterized by tolerance (increasing doses needed for the same effect) and withdrawal (unpleasant symptoms when the drug is discontinued). Psychological Dependence: A craving for the drug, driven by emotional or psychological well-being. Stimulants Stimulants: Drugs that increase the activity of the nervous system. Amphetamines: Synthesized drugs that stimulate the nervous system.  Cocaine: A natural stimulant that produces feelings of euphoria, energy, and pleasure. Stimulants (Nicotine and Caffeine) Nicotine: The active ingredient in tobacco. Caffeine: A stimulant found in coffee, tea, sodas, chocolate, and some over-the-counter medications. Harmful Effects of Nicotine Nicotine Addiction: Nicotine is highly addictive, and its use can have significant health consequences. Nicotine Patch: A method for reducing nicotine dependence by delivering a controlled dose of nicotine through the skin. Average Caffeine Content of Common Foods Caffeine Content: This table provides information on the caffeine content of various beverages and foods. Depressants Depressants: Drugs that slow down the activity of the nervous system. Barbiturates: Depressants that have a sedative effect. Benzodiazepines: Depressants that reduce anxiety and stress. Alcohol Alcohol: A chemical produced by fermentation or distillation of various plant materials. Depressant Effects: Alcohol is a depressant, despite being often perceived as a stimulant. Blood Alcohol Level and Behavior Blood Alcohol Content (BAC): This table shows the relationship between the number of drinks consumed and the resulting BAC, along with associated behavioral effects. Narcotics Narcotics: Opium-related drugs that suppress pain by binding to and stimulating opioid receptors. Opium: The source of many narcotics, derived from the opium poppy. Morphine: A narcotic used to treat severe pain. Heroin: A highly addictive narcotic derived from opium. Hallucinogens Psychogenic Drugs: Drugs that produce hallucinations or altered states of consciousness. Hallucinogens: Drugs that cause false sensory perceptions, altering the perception of reality. LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide): A powerful synthetic hallucinogen. PCP (Phencyclidine): A synthesized drug that can have stimulant, depressant, narcotic, or hallucinogenic effects. Hallucinogens (MDMA, Mescaline, Psilocybin) MDMA (Ecstasy or X): A designer drug that combines stimulant and hallucinogenic effects. Stimulatory Hallucinogenics: Drugs that produce a mix of stimulant and hallucinogenic effects. Mescaline: A natural hallucinogen derived from the peyote cactus. Psilocybin: A natural hallucinogen found in certain mushrooms. Marijuana Marijuana (Pot or Weed): A mild hallucinogen derived from the leaves and flowers of the cannabis plant. Medical Marijuana: Marijuana has been used to treat certain medical conditions, such as chronic pain and multiple sclerosis, but its use remains controversial. How Drugs Affect Consciousness Drug Classification: This table categorizes drugs based on their effects on consciousness. Depressants: Reduce nervous system activity, leading to relaxation. Stimulants: Increase nervous system activity, leading to excitement.  Narcotics: Produce euphoria by suppressing pain. Psychedelics and Hallucinogens: Distort consciousness and alter perception. LEARNING What is Learning? Learning: Defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience or practice. Brain Changes: Learning involves physical changes in the brain, creating neural pathways to store what is learned. Behavior Modification: Any change in the way an organism behaves is considered learning. Pavlov and Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov: A Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning through his research on digestion in dogs. Classical Conditioning: A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus, leading to a conditioned response. Classical Conditioning Concepts Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A naturally occurring stimulus that triggers an involuntary response. Unconditioned Response (UCR): The involuntary response to the UCS. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response. Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS. Pavlov's Classic Experiment in Conditioning Pavlov's Experiment: A famous experiment where Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell, demonstrating the principles of classical conditioning. Acquisition: The process of learning the association between the CS and UCS. Classical Conditioning Concepts Principles of Classical Conditioning: This slide outlines several key principles that govern classical conditioning. o The CS must precede the UCS. o The CS and UCS must be presented close together in time. o Repeated pairings of the CS and UCS are necessary for conditioning to occur. o The CS should be distinct from other stimuli. Classical Conditioning Concepts Stimulus Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the original CS with the conditioned response. Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between the original CS and similar stimuli, preventing a generalized response. Extinction: The weakening or disappearance of the CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS. Classical Conditioning Concepts Reinforcer: Any event or object that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a period of rest. Higher-Order Conditioning: Conditioning a new CS by pairing it with a previously conditioned CS. Conditioned Emotional Response Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): An emotional response that becomes classically conditioned to a learned stimulus. Phobias: Irrational fears that can develop through conditioned emotional responses. Conditioning of "Little Albert"  Little Albert Experiment: A famous experiment where a young boy was conditioned to fear a white rat through classical conditioning. Generalization: Albert's fear generalized to other white, furry objects. Taste Aversion Vicarious Conditioning: Learning through observing the reactions of others. Conditioned Taste Aversion: A rapid and strong aversion to a particular taste that is associated with illness. Biological Preparedness: The tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, more easily than others due to their survival value. Why Classical Conditioning Works Stimulus Substitution Theory: The original theory proposed by Pavlov, suggesting that the CS becomes a substitute for the UCS. Cognitive Perspective: A more modern theory that emphasizes the role of cognitive processes, such as expectations and predictions, in classical conditioning. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning: A type of learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences. Thorndike's Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated. Thorndike Puzzle Box Thorndike's Puzzle Box: A classic experiment where cats learned to escape from a box by pressing a lever, demonstrating the principles of operant conditioning. Skinner's Contribution to Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner: A prominent behaviorist who emphasized the importance of observable behavior and the role of consequences in shaping behavior.  Operant Conditioning: Skinner coined the term "operant conditioning" to describe this type of learning. Operant: Any voluntary behavior. Consequences: Learning is influenced by the consequences that follow a behavior. Skinner Box Skinner Box: A controlled environment used to study operant conditioning in animals, typically rats or pigeons. Reinforcement: The delivery of a reward (food) for a desired behavior (pressing a lever). Reinforcement Reinforcement: Any event or stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. Primary Reinforcer: A naturally reinforcing stimulus, such as food or water. Secondary Reinforcer: A stimulus that becomes reinforcing through association with a primary reinforcer, such as praise or money. Positive and Negative Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Shaping Shaping: A process of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior, gradually shaping the behavior into a more complex form. Successive Approximations: Small steps in behavior that are reinforced, leading to the desired behavior. Other Classical Conditioning Concepts  Extinction: The weakening or disappearance of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS. Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the original CS with the conditioned response. Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a period of rest. Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement: The patterns of reinforcement that determine when a behavior will be reinforced. Partial Reinforcement Effect: Behaviors that are reinforced intermittently are more resistant to extinction than those reinforced consistently. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing every instance of a desired behavior. Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses. Variable Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses. Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time has passed. Variable Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after a variable amount of time has passed. Punishment Punishment: Any event or object that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. Punishment by Application: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. Punishment by Removal: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment by Removal Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Punishment by Removal: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. Examples: This slide provides examples of negative reinforcement and punishment by removal to illustrate the difference between these concepts. Four Ways to Modify Behavior Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Punishment by Application: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. Punishment by Removal: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. How to Make Punishment More Effective Punishment Effectiveness: This slide outlines several guidelines for making punishment more effective. o Punishment should be immediate. o Punishment should be consistent. o Punishment should be paired with reinforcement for desired behavior. Operant Stimuli and Stimulus Control Discriminative Stimulus: A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement for a particular behavior. Stimulus Control: Learning to respond to a specific stimulus in a particular way, due to the association of that stimulus with reinforcement. Behavior Resistant to Conditioning Instinctive Drift: The tendency for an animal's behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns, even after conditioning. Instincts: Innate, unlearned behaviors that are difficult to modify through conditioning. Behavior Modification Behavior Modification: The use of operant conditioning techniques to change behavior in a desired direction. Token Economy: A system where desired behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges or rewards. Time-Out: A form of mild punishment where an individual is temporarily removed from a reinforcing environment. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): A form of behavior modification that uses shaping techniques to mold desired behaviors. Biofeedback and Neurofeedback Biofeedback: A technique that provides individuals with real-time feedback about their physiological responses, allowing them to learn to control those responses voluntarily. Neurofeedback: A type of biofeedback that uses brain-scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity, helping individuals learn to regulate their brainwave patterns. Cognitive Learning Theory Cognitive Learning Theory: Emphasizes the role of mental processes, such as thinking, problem-solving, and expectations, in learning. Cognition: Mental events that occur inside a person's mind. Edward Tolman: An early cognitive psychologist who challenged traditional behaviorist views. Latent Learning Tolman's Experiment: Tolman's classic experiment demonstrated that learning can occur without immediate reinforcement.  Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without being immediately apparent, but becomes evident when reinforcement is introduced or the behavior is needed. Learned Helplessness Learned Helplessness: A state of passive resignation that develops when an individual experiences repeated failures or uncontrollable negative events. Seligman's Apparatus Seligman's Experiment: Seligman's experiment with dogs demonstrated the concept of learned helplessness. Uncontrollable Events: Dogs that experienced uncontrollable shocks in the first phase of the experiment were less likely to escape in the second phase, even when escape was possible. Insight Insight: A sudden understanding of a problem or situation, leading to a solution. Aha Moment: The experience of sudden insight. Observational Learning Observational Learning: Learning by observing the behaviors of others. Learning/Performance Distinction: Learning can occur without immediately performing the learned behavior. Bandura's Classic Bobo Doll Study Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment: A famous experiment that demonstrated the influence of observational learning on aggressive behavior. Modeling: Children who observed an adult model behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll were more likely to imitate those aggressive behaviors. Four Elements of Observational Learning Attention: The learner must pay attention to the model.  o Memory: The learner must remember the modeled behavior. o Imitation: The learner must be able to reproduce the modeled behavior. o Motivation: The learner must be motivated to perform the modeled behavior. Cognitive Psychology: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language Thinking and Mental Images Thinking (Cognition): The mental activity that goes on in the brain when we organize, understand, and communicate information. Mental Images: Mental representations of objects or events that have a picture-like quality. Concepts Concepts: Mental representations of categories or classes of objects, events, or activities. Superordinate Concept: The most general form of a concept, such as "animal" or "fruit." Basic Level Concept: A concept that represents a typical example of a category, such as "dog," "cat," or "pear." Concepts (Subordinate, Formal, Natural, Prototype) Subordinate Concept: The most specific category of a concept, such as "your pet dog" or "the pear you are holding." Formal Concept: A concept defined by specific rules or features. Natural Concept: A concept formed through real-world experiences. Prototype: A typical example of a concept that closely matches its defining characteristics. Problem-Solving Problem-Solving: The process of cognition that involves reaching a goal through thinking and behaving in specific ways. Trial and Error: A problem-solving method where different solutions are tried until a successful one is found.  Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures for solving specific types of problems. Problem-Solving (Heuristics, Means-End Analysis, Insight) Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that help narrow down possible solutions. Means-End Analysis: A heuristic where the difference between the starting point and the goal is identified, and steps are taken to reduce that difference. Insight: A sudden perception of a solution to a problem. Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence (AI): The creation of machines that can think and behave like humans. Human Thought Processes: The true flexibility of human thought processes has not yet been fully replicated in machines. Problem-Solving Barriers Functional Fixedness: The tendency to think about objects only in terms of their typical functions, hindering problem-solving. Mental Set: The tendency to persist in using familiar problem-solving strategies, even when they are not the most effective. Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek out information that confirms existing beliefs while ignoring or dismissing contradictory evidence. IQ Tests Intelligence Quotient (IQ): A score that represents a measure of intelligence, calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test: A widely used IQ test. Wechsler Intelligence Tests: A series of IQ tests that measure verbal and performance abilities. Intelligence Intelligence: The ability to learn from experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively to adapt to new situations or solve problems. Development of IQ Tests Standardization: The process of administering a test to a large, representative sample of individuals to establish norms and ensure that the test is fair and reliable. Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. Reliability: The consistency of a test in producing similar scores when administered repeatedly. Unreliable and Invalid This slide illustrates the concept of an unreliable and invalid test, where the scores do not consistently reflect the underlying construct (intelligence) and may not be accurate. Reliable But Invalid This slide illustrates a test that is reliable (consistent in its scores) but not valid (does not accurately measure intelligence). Reliable AND Valid This slide illustrates a test that is both reliable (consistent scores) and valid (accurately measures intelligence). Development of IQ Tests Deviation IQ Scores: A type of IQ score that assumes a normal distribution of intelligence, with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Norms: Reference scores that are established through standardization, allowing for comparisons between individuals. The Normal Curve Normal Distribution: IQ scores tend to follow a normal distribution, with most scores clustering around the mean (100) and fewer scores at the extremes. Standard Deviation: A measure of how spread out the scores are from the mean. Mental Retardation  Developmentally Delayed: A condition where an individual's cognitive and behavioral skills are significantly below those of others at the same chronological age. Mental Retardation: A condition characterized by an IQ below 70 and significant limitations in adaptive behavior. Mental Retardation (Levels) Levels of Mental Retardation: Mental retardation is classified into four levels based on IQ scores: mild, moderate, severe, and profound. Causes: Mental retardation can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic disorders, environmental deprivation, and prenatal complications. Classifications of Developmental Delay This slide provides a table summarizing the classifications of developmental delay, including the range of IQ scores, adaptive limitations, and the percentage of the population affected by each level. Creativity Creativity: The ability to generate novel and useful ideas or solutions. Convergent Thinking: A type of thinking that focuses on finding the single best solution to a problem. Divergent Thinking: A type of thinking that involves generating multiple ideas or solutions to a problem. Stimulating Divergent Thinking Brainstorming: A technique for generating ideas by encouraging free-flowing thoughts without judgment. Keeping a Journal: A method for recording ideas as they occur. Freewriting: Writing continuously for a set period of time without editing or censoring. Mind or Subject Mapping: A visual technique for organizing ideas and their relationships. Giftedness  Giftedness: A term used to describe individuals who exhibit exceptional abilities or talents, often characterized by an IQ of 130 or above. Theories of Intelligence Spearman's Theory: Proposes a general intelligence factor (g) that underlies all specific abilities. Gardner's Theory: Suggests that there are multiple intelligences, including verbal, linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and existential. Gardner's Nine Intelligences This slide provides a table summarizing Gardner's nine intelligences, describing each intelligence and providing examples of occupations that might be associated with each. Theories of Intelligence Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Proposes three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. Theories of Intelligence Emotional Intelligence: The ability to understand and manage one's own emotions and the emotions of others. Heredity and Environment and Intelligence Heritability of Intelligence: Intelligence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Genetic Relatedness: Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores of individuals who are more genetically related. The Bell Curve: A controversial book that argued for a strong genetic influence on intelligence. Influence of Heredity and Environment  This slide illustrates the interplay of genetic predispositions, early childhood experiences, intellectual environments, and adult IQ scores. Language Language: A system of symbols (words) that allow for communication and the expression of ideas. Elements and Structure of Language Grammar: The rules that govern the structure and use of language. Syntax: The rules that govern how words and phrases are combined to form sentences. Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in a language. Semantics: The meaning of words and sentences. Elements and Structure of Language Phonemes: The basic units of sound in a language. Pragmatics: The social rules and conventions that govern how language is used in different contexts. Ways to Improve Thinking Mental Exercise: Engaging in mentally stimulating activities, such as crossword puzzles, reading, and creative problem-solving, can help keep the brain fit and improve thinking skills.