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Questions and Answers

What is the function of Halorhodopsins in optogenetics?

Activates biological function upon illumination dictated by the intracellular loops used in the hybrid

Conducts chloride ions into the cytoplasm (correct)

Conducts cations and depolarizes neurons on illumination

Depolarizes the cell

How does phosphorylation of SNAP-25 by PKC affect exocytosis?

Reduces calcium sensitivity of synaptotagmin

Inhibits interaction with syntaxin (correct)

Increases interaction with syntaxin

Enhances binding to calcium/calmodulin complex

What does sensitization involve in terms of early-phase functional effects?

Facilitation of synaptic transmission (correct)

Inhibition of presynaptic neurotransmitter release

Reduction in postsynaptic receptor expression

Decrease in synaptic vesicle recycling

What is the primary function of cAMP in neuronal signaling?

To increase intracellular concentration of calcium ions Signup and view all the answers

According to the multiple-trace theory, what is a key role of the hippocampus?

Orchestrating cortical binding and indexing Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory was spared in Patient HM despite the memory deficit for events?

Procedural memory Signup and view all the answers

Which gene manipulation tool is used to interfere with LTP and CA1 place fields?

CREB-Cre Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of SNARE proteins in neuronal signaling?

To detach synaptic vesicles from the reserve pool Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of LoxP / Cre in molecular biology?

To disrupt original gene function Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of calmodulin in the neuronal signaling process?

To form a complex with calcium ions Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of synapsin I phosphorylation in neuronal signaling?

Causes dissociation of synapsin I from the vesicular membrane Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of a receptor in the neuronal signaling process?

To bind to neurotransmitters Signup and view all the answers

What were the main findings of the Rainer (1999) study?

Neurons in the prefrontal cortex showed prospective coding for objects Signup and view all the answers

What tasks did the monkeys perform in the Rainer (1999) study?

A paired-associate task Signup and view all the answers

What was the stimulus presented to monkeys as part of the experimental design in the Lebedev et al. (2004) study?

Combination of visual, auditory, and somatosensory stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of synapsin I phosphorylation in neuronal signaling?

Enhancing neurotransmitter release Signup and view all the answers

In the Rainer (1999) study, what does the shift to the left of zero in the distribution of NDA - NDN values during the delay epoch indicate?

An increase in prospective coding during the delay. Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested by the findings of Lebedev et al. (2004) regarding classical theories of attention and memory?

The findings challenge the maintenance-memory theory and provide support for global workspace theory. Signup and view all the answers

What does the study suggest about memory tuning in relation to the initial location of the circle in Lebedev (2004)?

Memory tuning developed during the trial and wasn’t a simple replica of the initial presentation. Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested by Future Research based on Lebedev et al. (2004)?

Future research could investigate: The role of PFdl in other cognitive processes such as decision-making and planning. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of the Lebedev et al. (2004) study?

Neural mechanisms underlying prospective coding in the primate prefrontal cortex Signup and view all the answers

What experimental design was used in the Lebedev et al. (2004) study?

A visual stimulus (a circle) at different locations on a screen Signup and view all the answers

In the Rainer (1999) study, what is suggested by the distribution of NDA - NDN values being significantly shifted to the left of zero during the delay epoch?

A decrease in sensory-related cells and an increase in prospective cells during the delay. Signup and view all the answers

In the (Hoffman, 2002) paper, which method was used for monitoring the activity of single cells in area CA1 of the hippocampus?

In vivo two-photon calcium imaging Signup and view all the answers

In the (Barnes, 1997) paper, what is the primary focus of the study?

The relationship between old age and place-field remapping in rats Signup and view all the answers

In the (Hoffman, 2002) paper, what does the result about cells recorded in dorsal PFC indicate?

Increased firing rate during memory retrieval Signup and view all the answers

What type of activity has been correlated with locomotion and dominates the behavioral phase?

Theta activity Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary process by which hippocampal information is gradually transferred to the neocortex?

Rapid synaptic modification Signup and view all the answers

In the (Wilson, 1994) paper, What is the purpose of monitoring the activity of single cells in area CA1 of the hippocampus?

To determine the spatial firing characteristics of the cells Signup and view all the answers

How is hippocampal information gradually transferred to the neocortex during slow-wave sleep?

Through rapid synaptic modification Signup and view all the answers

What did the monitoring of single cells in area CA1 of the hippocampus aim to investigate?

The spatial firing characteristics of the cells Signup and view all the answers

Which type of sleep is dominated by theta activity correlated with locomotion?

Non-REM sleep Signup and view all the answers

What did Wilson (1994) study monitor the activity of single cells in area CA1 of the hippocampus to examine?

The spatial firing characteristics of the cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of the study in the (Hoffman, 2002) paper?

Memory consolidation in the neocortex Signup and view all the answers

What does the observed preservation of correlation structure and temporal bias indicate during the rest epochs according to the (Hoffman, 2002) paper?

Fluctuation among many recently experienced activity states, at least partly in the original temporal sequence. Signup and view all the answers

According to the theoretical framework mentioned in the (Barnes, 1997) paper, what could disruption of LTP during aging result in?

Inability to select the correct map upon entry into a familiar environment Signup and view all the answers

In the (Wilson, 1994) paper, what is the significance of the increased correlations in cell pairs coactive during behavior compared to non-overlapping place fields?

It suggests associative synaptic modification at some stage in the system Signup and view all the answers

In the (Hoffman, 2002) paper, what does the cross-correlograms (CCGs) measure?

The degree of sequence reactivation during memory trace reactivation Signup and view all the answers

In the (Wilson, 1994) paper, how did the researchers study the activity correlations among large sets of simultaneously recorded cells?

By examining statistical pair-wise interactions between neuronal spike trains. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main finding of the (Wilson, 1994) study?

Information acquired during active behavior is re-expressed in hippocampal circuits during sleep. Signup and view all the answers

What did (Hafting et al., 2005) find about neurons in layer II of dMEC?

They exhibited multiple discrete firing fields with distinct inhibitory surrounds. Signup and view all the answers

What did (Hafting et al., 2005) conclude about the role of the entorhinal cortex in spatial navigation?

It uses a coordinate system to represent space and is involved in path integration. Signup and view all the answers

What did the monitoring of single cells in area CA1 of the hippocampus aim to investigate?

The process by which hippocampal information is gradually transferred to the neocortex. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the entorhinal cortex in relation to place cells in the hippocampus?

Supplying input that drives place cells Signup and view all the answers

What were (Hafting et al., 2005) aiming to investigate regarding grid cells in dMEC?

Whether grid cells rely solely on information from the rat’s movement (idiothetic cues) to determine their discharge locations Signup and view all the answers

How do sensory inputs contribute to navigation according to the (Hafting et al., 2005) paper?

By integrating with other inputs for creating a mental map Signup and view all the answers

What was the finding of (Hafting et al., 2005) about the stability of grid vertices across successive trials in the same enclosure?

The stability suggested influence of allothetic cues Signup and view all the answers

What was the function of tetrodes used in Experiment 1 of (Doeller et al., 2010)?

To record the activity of individual neurons in rats Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of the paper by (Doeller et al., 2010)?

The role of grid cells in human spatial memory Signup and view all the answers

What did the (Hafting et al., 2005) study reveal about grid-like activity in grid cells after the removal of visual cues?

The grid structure was not dependent on visual cues. Signup and view all the answers

What did the authors of (Doeller et al., 2010) conclude about grid cells based on their study.

Grid cells exist in humans and are located in the entorhinal cortex Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of NMDA-type receptors in long-term potentiation (LTP)?

They result in the growth and strengthening of synaptic connections in the brain Signup and view all the answers

What is the cellular mechanism that underlies learning and memory in the brain?

The growth and strengthening of synaptic connections Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of calmodulin in the neuronal signaling process?

Regulation of calcium ion concentration in the cytoplasm Signup and view all the answers

What protein enhances the release of transmitter from sensory neurons' terminals through phosphorylation of several substrate proteins during sensitization?

Protein Kinase A (PKA) Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the ubiquitin hydrolase in the long-term facilitation process?

It leads to the regulated proteolysis of the regulatory subunit of PKA Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes sensitization?

A heterosynaptic process induced by interneurons activated by the stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of Protein Kinase C (PKC) during sensitization?

Regulating neurotransmitter release Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of serotonin during sensitization?

Stimulating adenylate cyclase Signup and view all the answers

What does Chloride channel do during sensitization?

Regulates neurotransmitter release Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of Adenylate cyclase activation during sensitization?

Enhances synaptic transmission Signup and view all the answers

What is impacted by Potassium channel activation during sensitization?

Regulates neurotransmitter release Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of α-synuclein during sensitization?

Regulation of neurotransmitter release Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of modulatory interneurons in sensitization?

Enhancement of synaptic transmission through presynaptic facilitation Signup and view all the answers

What do N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors activate during long-term plasticity?

Transcription factors such as cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) Signup and view all the answers

Which signaling pathway is thought to mediate long-term plasticity?

NMDA receptor-dependent pathway Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of intracellular signaling pathways in long-term plasticity?

Activating transcription factors Signup and view all the answers

What are the molecular mechanisms involved in short-term and long-term plasticity?

Activation of intracellular signaling pathways and modification of synaptic strength. Signup and view all the answers

What is a feature unique to classical conditioning?

Greater presynaptic facilitation due to timing of conditioned stimulus preceding unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is the second messenger produced as a result of the activation of G protein Gαs in the context of sensitization?

cAMP Signup and view all the answers

Which one is a direct result of the activation of CREB-1 in the long-term facilitation process?

Phosphorylation of the cAMP-response element binding (CREB) protein Signup and view all the answers

What is a role of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors during long-term plasticity?

Transcription factors such as cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) Signup and view all the answers

Which molecule is activated by serotonin during sensitization, resulting in enhanced synaptic transmission?

Intracellular signaling pathways such as calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) and protein kinase C (PKC) Signup and view all the answers

What did the study (Liu et al., 2012) challenge in previous theories?

Showing that activation of a specific population of neurons is necessary but not sufficient for memory recall Signup and view all the answers

What was the methodology used in the study by (Han et al., 2009)?

None of the above Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of the (Pastalkova et al., 2006) study?

To reverse the maintenance of LTP in vivo Signup and view all the answers

In (Han et al., 2009), What did the study reveal about the relationship between cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element–binding protein (CREB) and fear memory?

Increased CREB led to selective ablation of fear memory neurons Signup and view all the answers

In (Liu et al., 2012), What was the key focus of the paper?

Investigating the sufficiency of activating specific hippocampal neurons for fear memory recall Signup and view all the answers

(Han et al., 2009), What was the main strategy used by the authors to selectively ablate neurons with increased CREB after learning?

Inducible diphtheria-toxin strategy Signup and view all the answers

What was the key component used to induce apoptosis in the iDTR mice as part of the experimental groups?

CREB-cre vector Signup and view all the answers

In (Han et al., 2009), What is the molecular signature used to identify neurons specifically activated by fear memory testing?

Arc RNA Signup and view all the answers

In (Liu et al., 2012), What did the researchers use to label a population of DG neurons activated during fear learning?

Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) Signup and view all the answers

What did the (Pastalkova et al., 2006) study examine to determine whether the observed loss of long-term memory was specific to PKMz inhibition?

Inducible diphtheria-toxin strategy to specifically ablate neurons with increased CREB Signup and view all the answers

(Han et al., 2009) revealed what about the neural basis of fear memory?

It revealed a causal link between specific neuronal subpopulations and memory expression Signup and view all the answers

(Han et al., 2009) aimed to achieve what by using an inducible diphtheria-toxin strategy in the study?

Specific ablation of neurons with increased CREB after learning Signup and view all the answers

Which region of the brain did the researchers target in the study by Xu Liu et al. (2012)?

Dentate gyrus of the hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

(Liu et al., 2012) presented a key challenge to previous theories regarding fear memory recall by:

Showing that activation of a specific population of neurons is not necessary for memory recall Signup and view all the answers

(Pastalkova et al., 2006) study compared the effects of ZIP to which peptide, in order to understand its specificity?

Broad-spectrum kinase inhibitor staurosporine Signup and view all the answers

(Liu et al., 2012) used what method to label a population of DG neurons activated during fear learning?

Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) Signup and view all the answers

What is the main factor determining the stability of hippocampal place cell representations according to (Kentros et al., 2004)?

Behavioral relevance Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the injection of the NMDA receptor antagonist CPP or saline in the experiments according to (Rowland et al., 2011)?

Regulating hippocampal place cell representations Signup and view all the answers

According to the study (Kentros et al., 2004), what influences the stability of a hippocampal place cell representation of an environment?

Environmental novelty Signup and view all the answers

What did the study by Kentros et al. (2004) reveal about the stability of place fields in the ‘no task’ behavioral group?

Place fields changed significantly from one session to the next Signup and view all the answers

In the study by Kentros et al. (2004), what did the spatial task group, recorded while successfully executing an operant place preference task, exhibit in terms of place field stability?

The most stable place fields Signup and view all the answers

What were the results of the study (Kentros et al., 2004) regarding the effect of group on field size and information content?

No significant effect on either field size or information content Signup and view all the answers

(Kentros et al., 2004), What is the focus of the study?

The effect of spatial context on place field stability and spatial memory Signup and view all the answers

(Kentros et al., 2004), According to the study, what influences the stability of a hippocampal place cell representation of an environment.

Environmental novelty Signup and view all the answers

In (Rowland et al., 2011), What was the aim of using CPP in evaluating place field stability.

To assess the stability of place fields in directly experienced versus observed areas Signup and view all the answers

In (Rowland et al., 2011), What is the primary focus of the paper.

The relationship between the hippocampus and spatial memories Signup and view all the answers

In (Rowland et al., 2011), What was the purpose of using a customized environment and pharmacological blockade of NMDA receptor-dependent plasticity in the experiments.

To assess the stability of place fields in directly experienced versus observed areas Signup and view all the answers

In (Kentros et al., 2004), What did the spatial task group, recorded while successfully executing an operant place preference task, exhibit in terms of place field stability.

The most stable place fields Signup and view all the answers

In (Kentros et al., 2004), According to the study, what influences the stability of a hippocampal place cell representation of an environment.

Environmental novelty Signup and view all the answers

What was the implication of rotating the outer box 90 degrees after finding place cells in the Rowland et al. (2011) study?

The rats used spatial cues from the outer box to orient their place cells Signup and view all the answers

What did the study by Kentros et al. (2004) suggest about the response to reinforcing stimuli in spatial task animals?

The execution of the task is not stereotypical and place fields are not simply encoding the reinforcers Signup and view all the answers

What happened to the majority of inner box place fields in the CPP-injected animals in the Rowland et al. (2011) study?

They remained stable, except for those that had previously remapped due to wall removal Signup and view all the answers

In Rowland et al. (2011), what did rotating the outer box 90 degrees after finding place cells imply about the rats' behavior?

The rats did not rely on spatial cues from the outer box for navigation Signup and view all the answers

In (Rowland et al., 2011), what was the aim of using CPP?

To destabilize newly formed place fields in the outer box while sparing previously formed ones Signup and view all the answers

What did the (Wang et al., 2014) study find regarding interconnectivity among stimulation-responsive regions?

Stimulation increased interconnectivity among stimulation-responsive regions Signup and view all the answers

What type of patients participated in the (Miller et al., 2013) study?

Patients with neurological disorders Signup and view all the answers

In (Wang et al., 2014), What was used to measure changes in cortical-hippocampal network fMRI connectivity and associative memory performance?

Assessment of midtreatment and posttreatment fMRI connectivity Signup and view all the answers

What was the purpose of the virtual-reality memory game designed for the (Miller et al., 2013) study?

To determine whether the neural representation of space in the hippocampus is part of a broader network of neurons that encode episodic memories more generally Signup and view all the answers

In (Miller et al., 2013), In which brain region did researchers find significant spatial context reinstatement related to the time of item vocalization?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What did the (Miller et al., 2013) study identify as place-responsive cells?

Neurons showing increased firing at any location in the virtual environment Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the main results of the (Wang et al., 2014) study regarding stimulation-induced associative memory enhancement?

Stimulation increased memory performance in a face-cued word recall test of associative memory Signup and view all the answers

In (Jacobs et al., 2016), What regions were examined for the effects of stimulation other than the entorhinal region and hippocampus?

Parahippocampal gyrus, cingulate, and prefrontal cortex Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of the (Wang et al., 2014) study?

To investigate the role of the hippocampus in associative memory using noninvasive interventions Signup and view all the answers

What brain areas are regarded as having a critical role in declarative memory.

Entorhinal and hippocampal regions Signup and view all the answers

What was the main goal of the (Miller et al., 2013) study.

To determine whether the neural representation of space in the hippocampus is part of a broader network of neurons that encode episodic memories more generally Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the main results of the (Wang et al., 2014) study regarding stimulation-induced associative memory enhancement.

Stimulation increased memory performance in a face-cued word recall test of associative memory Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of the (Miller et al., 2013) study.

To determine whether the neural representation of space in the hippocampus is part of a broader network of neurons that encode episodic memories more generally Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Optogenetics and Neuronal Signaling

Halorhodopsins are used in optogenetics to inhibit neurons.
Phosphorylation of SNAP-25 by PKC affects exocytosis.
cAMP is involved in neuronal signaling, with its primary function being to activate protein kinase A.
Synapsin I phosphorylation is significant in neuronal signaling, with phosphorylation increasing the availability of synaptic vesicles for release.
The primary function of LoxP / Cre in molecular biology is to perform site-specific recombination.
Calmodulin has a primary function in neuronal signaling, binding to calcium ions and activating various enzymes.
The role of a receptor in neuronal signaling is to receive and respond to signals.

Memory and Hippocampus

According to the multiple-trace theory, the hippocampus plays a key role in the formation and consolidation of new memories.
Patient HM had a memory deficit for events, but episodic memory was spared.
The multiple-trace theory suggests that the hippocampus is involved in the formation of multiple traces or memories.

Molecular Biology and LTP

LTP is a process involving the strengthening of synaptic connections based on experience.
The gene manipulation tool used to interfere with LTP and CA1 place fields is Cre-LoxP.
The primary function of SNARE proteins in neuronal signaling is to mediate vesicle fusion.
NMDA-type receptors play a key role in long-term potentiation (LTP).

Studies

The Rainer (1999) study found that the distribution of NDA - NDN values during the delay epoch was significantly shifted to the left of zero, indicating a shift in attention.
The primary focus of the Lebedev et al. (2004) study was on spatial attention and memory.
The Lebedev et al. (2004) study suggested that memory tuning is related to the initial location of the circle.
The Hoffman (2002) paper used a method for monitoring the activity of single cells in area CA1 of the hippocampus.
The primary focus of the Barnes (1997) study was on the role of the hippocampus in spatial memory.
The Wilson (1994) paper monitored the activity of single cells in area CA1 of the hippocampus to examine the process of hippocampal information transfer to the neocortex.
The Hafting et al. (2005) study found that grid cells in the entorhinal cortex are involved in spatial navigation.

Sensitization and Long-term Plasticity

Sensitization involves the enhancement of synaptic transmission through phosphorylation of several substrate proteins.
The protein that enhances the release of transmitter from sensory neurons' terminals during sensitization is PKC.
The ubiquitin hydrolase plays a role in the long-term facilitation process.
Serotonin is involved in sensitization, and its activation of chloride channels leads to an increase in synaptic transmission.
Adenylate cyclase activation during sensitization leads to an increase in cAMP, which activates PKA.
N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors are involved in long-term plasticity.

Fear Memory and Learning

The Liu et al. (2012) study found that fear memory recall is not solely dependent on the hippocampus.
The Han et al. (2009) study revealed that CREB is involved in fear memory formation.
The Pastalkova et al. (2006) study examined the role of PKMz in long-term memory.
The Kentros et al. (2004) study found that the stability of hippocampal place cell representations is influenced by experience.
The Rowland et al. (2011) study used CPP to evaluate place field stability.

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