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Questions and Answers
What is the primary reason an observed association may not indicate a causal effect?
What is the primary reason an observed association may not indicate a causal effect?
- Lack of statistical significance
- Random sampling errors
- The presence of confounding variables (correct)
- Insufficient sample size
How do measures of association relate to exposure and outcome variables?
How do measures of association relate to exposure and outcome variables?
- They estimate future health outcomes
- They quantify the relationship strength and direction (correct)
- They identify the most affected demographic
- They measure the cost of exposure
What type of comparison is often involved in identifying causes of disease?
What type of comparison is often involved in identifying causes of disease?
- Comparing groups based on treatment received
- Comparing age groups within the same exposure level
- Comparing geographic regions with differing health policies
- Comparing disease incidence between exposed and unexposed groups (correct)
What do we estimate by measuring disease incidence across different exposure groups?
What do we estimate by measuring disease incidence across different exposure groups?
What does an association between exposure and outcome imply, if not controlled for confounding?
What does an association between exposure and outcome imply, if not controlled for confounding?
What does incidence proportion specifically measure in a closed population?
What does incidence proportion specifically measure in a closed population?
Which of the following is NOT a consideration when calculating incidence proportion?
Which of the following is NOT a consideration when calculating incidence proportion?
What has the greatest impact on the accuracy of incidence proportion?
What has the greatest impact on the accuracy of incidence proportion?
How is incidence proportion calculated?
How is incidence proportion calculated?
What term describes the proportion of a closed population at risk that becomes diseased within a period of time?
What term describes the proportion of a closed population at risk that becomes diseased within a period of time?
In what situation is incidence proportion most accurately used?
In what situation is incidence proportion most accurately used?
What does the term 'population at risk' refer to in the context of incidence proportion?
What does the term 'population at risk' refer to in the context of incidence proportion?
Which measurement provides the best estimate of average risk over time in a defined population?
Which measurement provides the best estimate of average risk over time in a defined population?
What is the primary focus of descriptive epidemiology?
What is the primary focus of descriptive epidemiology?
Which of the following best defines incidence in epidemiology?
Which of the following best defines incidence in epidemiology?
What distinguishes closed populations from open populations in epidemiology?
What distinguishes closed populations from open populations in epidemiology?
Which aspect does etiologic or analytic epidemiology primarily assess?
Which aspect does etiologic or analytic epidemiology primarily assess?
Why are demographic and geographic patterns in disease occurrence important?
Why are demographic and geographic patterns in disease occurrence important?
What type of study collects data at a single point in time?
What type of study collects data at a single point in time?
Which of the following factors could be considered an exposure in epidemiology?
Which of the following factors could be considered an exposure in epidemiology?
What is a primary aim of epidemiology?
What is a primary aim of epidemiology?
What is an average causal effect of treatment A on outcome Y in a population?
What is an average causal effect of treatment A on outcome Y in a population?
In the context of causality, what does a sufficient cause imply?
In the context of causality, what does a sufficient cause imply?
Which factor is not associated with population-level causality?
Which factor is not associated with population-level causality?
What distinguishes causation from association in epidemiological terms?
What distinguishes causation from association in epidemiological terms?
What must be true for a causative relationship to exist between an exposure A and an outcome Y?
What must be true for a causative relationship to exist between an exposure A and an outcome Y?
Regarding exposure A and outcome Y, which statement about association is accurate?
Regarding exposure A and outcome Y, which statement about association is accurate?
Which level of causality is concerned with pathological changes in the lung after tobacco exposure?
Which level of causality is concerned with pathological changes in the lung after tobacco exposure?
Which of the following statements is true regarding the necessary cause of enteric illnesses?
Which of the following statements is true regarding the necessary cause of enteric illnesses?
What does a risk ratio greater than 1 indicate?
What does a risk ratio greater than 1 indicate?
What is the primary purpose of calculating a rate ratio?
What is the primary purpose of calculating a rate ratio?
When the risk ratio equals 1, what does this imply?
When the risk ratio equals 1, what does this imply?
If an incidence rate ratio (IRR) is less than 1, what conclusion can be drawn?
If an incidence rate ratio (IRR) is less than 1, what conclusion can be drawn?
Which of the following correctly describes the calculation of risk in the exposed group?
Which of the following correctly describes the calculation of risk in the exposed group?
Which measure specifically refers to time at risk in its calculation?
Which measure specifically refers to time at risk in its calculation?
What does an incidence rate ratio (IRR) equal to 1 mean?
What does an incidence rate ratio (IRR) equal to 1 mean?
In the context of disease frequency, what do 'D+' and 'D-' represent?
In the context of disease frequency, what do 'D+' and 'D-' represent?
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Study Notes
Disease Occurrence
- The study of the distribution and causes of disease, health, and other events in populations is known as epidemiology.
- Descriptive epidemiology focuses on characterizing the distribution of health, disease, and exposures in a defined population, including differences over time.
- Etiologic or analytic epidemiology examines the effects of exposures, such as possible causes, on the occurrence of disease.
- Exposure can be understood at multiple levels, including genetic, personal (demographics, behaviours, medical history, environment), and societal (neighbourhood SES, national income inequality).
- One aim of epidemiology is to estimate disease frequency and identify patterns that vary with time, place, and population subgroups.
Disease Frequency
- Population is a group of people who share characteristics or meet criteria for membership at a specific time.
- Measures of disease occurrence are observed in populations at or over a specific time (cross-sectional or longitudinal, respectively).
- Closed populations add no new members and only lose members due to death.
- Open populations experience both gains and losses.
- Incidence refers to the number of new occurrences of a condition or disease in a population over a specific time period.
- Incidence proportion (also known as cumulative incidence, risk, or attack rate) is the proportion of a closed population at risk that becomes diseased within a given time period.
- Incidence proportion is a measure of average risk (probability of developing the disease during the specified time period) for individuals in a closed population.
- Incidence rate is a measure of the number of new cases in a defined population per unit of time.
- Prevalence is the number of cases of a disease present in a population at a specified time (also known as point prevalence).
- Prevalence is influenced by incidence and duration of the disease.
Causality
- Causality can be studied at multiple levels – population, individual, organ, cellular, or molecular.
- Association doesn't imply causation; merely that two variables may be related, but not necessarily causally linked.
- Confounding occurs when an unmeasured factor affects both exposure and outcome, falsely suggesting a causal relationship.
Measures of Association
- Measures of association quantify the strength and direction of the relationship between exposure and outcome variables.
- Risk Ratio (RR) is the incidence of disease in the exposed group divided by the incidence of disease in the unexposed group.
- RR>1 indicates an increased risk, RR=1 indicates no difference in risk, and RR<1 indicates a decreased risk.
- Rate Ratio (IRR) compares the incidence rate of disease in the exposed group to the incidence rate in the unexposed group.
- IRR>1 indicates an increased rate, IRR=1 indicates no difference in rate, and IRR<1 indicates a decreased rate.
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