Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the main focus of epidemiology?
What is the main focus of epidemiology?
- Analyzing the economic factors affecting healthcare access
- Studying the frequency and distribution of health-related states and events in human populations (correct)
- Exploring the impact of climate change on health outcomes
- Determining why diseases occur in specific populations
Which population type is defined by being in or out of a state?
Which population type is defined by being in or out of a state?
- Baby boomers
- Dynamic population (correct)
- Students in a school
- Fixed population
What does a proportion involve dividing by?
What does a proportion involve dividing by?
- The smaller of two quantities
- The sum of itself with another quantity (correct)
- The larger of two quantities
- The product of two quantities
What does a rate measure in epidemiology?
What does a rate measure in epidemiology?
How is ratio different from proportion in epidemiology?
How is ratio different from proportion in epidemiology?
What does prevalence measure?
What does prevalence measure?
When is point prevalence calculated?
When is point prevalence calculated?
What is period prevalence?
What is period prevalence?
What is not useful for determining what caused the disease?
What is not useful for determining what caused the disease?
Why is prevalence information relevant for health service planning?
Why is prevalence information relevant for health service planning?
Which measure is more accurate for exploring causes of a disease?
Which measure is more accurate for exploring causes of a disease?
What does the Cumulative Incidence measure?
What does the Cumulative Incidence measure?
Why is Cumulative Incidence less accurate than Incidence Rate?
Why is Cumulative Incidence less accurate than Incidence Rate?
Which population type is Incidence Rate more useful for?
Which population type is Incidence Rate more useful for?
What does Person-Time Rate involve?
What does Person-Time Rate involve?
If incidence and cure rates are steady while treatment prolongs the life of individuals with a disease, what is the expected impact on prevalence?
If incidence and cure rates are steady while treatment prolongs the life of individuals with a disease, what is the expected impact on prevalence?
In a fixed population with steady incidence and death rates, what happens to prevalence if the treatment cures the disease?
In a fixed population with steady incidence and death rates, what happens to prevalence if the treatment cures the disease?
What does the Mortality Rate measure?
What does the Mortality Rate measure?
Which rate is calculated as the proportion of cases of a disease without deaths divided by the total population?
Which rate is calculated as the proportion of cases of a disease without deaths divided by the total population?
What does the Attack Rate measure?
What does the Attack Rate measure?
What is the purpose of Measures of Association in epidemiology?
What is the purpose of Measures of Association in epidemiology?
What is the Prevalence Ratio used for in epidemiological studies?
What is the Prevalence Ratio used for in epidemiological studies?
In a 2x2 Table for Summarizing Epidemiological Data, what is typically compared?
In a 2x2 Table for Summarizing Epidemiological Data, what is typically compared?
What does the Prevalence Ratio value of 2.85 indicate?
What does the Prevalence Ratio value of 2.85 indicate?
What aspect of groups is compared when using Measures of Association?
What aspect of groups is compared when using Measures of Association?
What does a Rate Ratio (RR) less than 1.0 indicate?
What does a Rate Ratio (RR) less than 1.0 indicate?
In epidemiological terms, what does a Rate Difference (RD) of 0 imply?
In epidemiological terms, what does a Rate Difference (RD) of 0 imply?
If the Rate Ratio (RR) is near 1.0, what does this suggest about the association?
If the Rate Ratio (RR) is near 1.0, what does this suggest about the association?
What does it signify if a Rate Difference (RD) is greater than 0?
What does it signify if a Rate Difference (RD) is greater than 0?
How is the Rate Ratio (RR) different from the Rate Difference (RD)?
How is the Rate Ratio (RR) different from the Rate Difference (RD)?
What does a Rate Difference (RD) less than 0 signify?
What does a Rate Difference (RD) less than 0 signify?
What is the main purpose of Descriptive Studies in epidemiology?
What is the main purpose of Descriptive Studies in epidemiology?
In Descriptive Studies, what is a major limitation that affects the ability to establish causal relationships?
In Descriptive Studies, what is a major limitation that affects the ability to establish causal relationships?
Which type of study design follows the results as they develop from present time forward?
Which type of study design follows the results as they develop from present time forward?
What is a key advantage of Case Reports in epidemiology?
What is a key advantage of Case Reports in epidemiology?
When considering Individual studies, what is a significant disadvantage of Case Reports?
When considering Individual studies, what is a significant disadvantage of Case Reports?
What is a key advantage of a Case Series compared to Case Reports?
What is a key advantage of a Case Series compared to Case Reports?
In a Cross-Sectional Study, what is a common limitation that makes it hard to establish causality?
In a Cross-Sectional Study, what is a common limitation that makes it hard to establish causality?
What is a significant advantage of a Repeated Cross Sectional Study over a simple Cross-Sectional Study?
What is a significant advantage of a Repeated Cross Sectional Study over a simple Cross-Sectional Study?
Which of the following is NOT an advantage of a Cross-Sectional Study?
Which of the following is NOT an advantage of a Cross-Sectional Study?
What is a primary disadvantage of a Case Series in terms of hypothesis testing?
What is a primary disadvantage of a Case Series in terms of hypothesis testing?
Which of the following is an important use of a Cross-Sectional Study in epidemiology?
Which of the following is an important use of a Cross-Sectional Study in epidemiology?
What is a primary disadvantage of an Ecological Study?
What is a primary disadvantage of an Ecological Study?
Why is it challenging to establish causality in an Ecological Study?
Why is it challenging to establish causality in an Ecological Study?
Which factor makes Ecological Studies susceptible to inaccurate associations?
Which factor makes Ecological Studies susceptible to inaccurate associations?
What is a significant limitation of Ecological Studies in terms of association establishment?
What is a significant limitation of Ecological Studies in terms of association establishment?
Why do Ecological Studies struggle to ensure the exposure and disease development are linked in the same person?
Why do Ecological Studies struggle to ensure the exposure and disease development are linked in the same person?
What type of study is indicated for diseases that take a long time to develop?
What type of study is indicated for diseases that take a long time to develop?
What measure can be used to assess the strength of the association between an exposed cohort and an unexposed cohort in a Longitudinal Study?
What measure can be used to assess the strength of the association between an exposed cohort and an unexposed cohort in a Longitudinal Study?
Which type of Cohort Study involves exposure occurring before the disease and compares the disease development over time between exposed and unexposed cohorts?
Which type of Cohort Study involves exposure occurring before the disease and compares the disease development over time between exposed and unexposed cohorts?
What is a common characteristic of Longitudinal Studies that makes them advantageous for certain types of diseases?
What is a common characteristic of Longitudinal Studies that makes them advantageous for certain types of diseases?
Which characteristic of Ambi-Directional Studies makes them vulnerable to bias and limits their internal validity?
Which characteristic of Ambi-Directional Studies makes them vulnerable to bias and limits their internal validity?
What is an advantage of Cohort Studies when used to study multiple effects of exposure?
What is an advantage of Cohort Studies when used to study multiple effects of exposure?
What does an Odds Ratio (OR) value of 1.0 signify in a case-control study?
What does an Odds Ratio (OR) value of 1.0 signify in a case-control study?
Which of the following is a disadvantage of a case-control study?
Which of the following is a disadvantage of a case-control study?
In a case-control study, being unable to calculate cumulative incidence is primarily due to:
In a case-control study, being unable to calculate cumulative incidence is primarily due to:
Why are case-control studies not useful for rare exposures?
Why are case-control studies not useful for rare exposures?
What is a key advantage of using a control group in a case-control study?
What is a key advantage of using a control group in a case-control study?
If an Odds Ratio (OR) is significantly greater than 1.0, what interpretation can be made regarding the exposure and disease relationship?
If an Odds Ratio (OR) is significantly greater than 1.0, what interpretation can be made regarding the exposure and disease relationship?
What is the primary purpose of random allocation in a Randomized Control Trial (RCT)?
What is the primary purpose of random allocation in a Randomized Control Trial (RCT)?
Why is double-blinding considered the most preferred study design to establish causality in RCTs?
Why is double-blinding considered the most preferred study design to establish causality in RCTs?
What is the key advantage of maintaining frequent contact as a method to increase compliance in RCTs?
What is the key advantage of maintaining frequent contact as a method to increase compliance in RCTs?
In what way does using a dispensing device contribute to increased compliance in RCTs?
In what way does using a dispensing device contribute to increased compliance in RCTs?
Why does noncompliance lead to inaccurate results in RCTs?
Why does noncompliance lead to inaccurate results in RCTs?
What is a significant disadvantage of randomization in RCTs?
What is a significant disadvantage of randomization in RCTs?
Which of the following is NOT a component of the evidence of causality in epidemiology?
Which of the following is NOT a component of the evidence of causality in epidemiology?
If a study's findings cannot be replicated by independent investigators or in different populations, what aspect of evidence of causality is compromised?
If a study's findings cannot be replicated by independent investigators or in different populations, what aspect of evidence of causality is compromised?
What does the term 'Specificity of the Association' imply in the context of determining causality?
What does the term 'Specificity of the Association' imply in the context of determining causality?
Why is biologic plausibility considered a crucial element in establishing causality in epidemiology?
Why is biologic plausibility considered a crucial element in establishing causality in epidemiology?
In epidemiology, what does the 'Dose-Response Relationship' indicate regarding exposure and disease?
In epidemiology, what does the 'Dose-Response Relationship' indicate regarding exposure and disease?
What distinguishes a Quasi-Experimental Study from an Experimental Study?
What distinguishes a Quasi-Experimental Study from an Experimental Study?
In a Posttest-Only with Control Group type of study, what differentiates group B from group A?
In a Posttest-Only with Control Group type of study, what differentiates group B from group A?
What is a primary disadvantage of Natural Experiments compared to Randomized Control Trials (RCTs)?
What is a primary disadvantage of Natural Experiments compared to Randomized Control Trials (RCTs)?
What is the significance of a P-Value less than 0.05 in hypothesis testing?
What is the significance of a P-Value less than 0.05 in hypothesis testing?
In hypothesis testing, what does it mean if a study has a P-Value greater than 0.05?
In hypothesis testing, what does it mean if a study has a P-Value greater than 0.05?
What are the disadvantages of using P-Value in hypothesis testing?
What are the disadvantages of using P-Value in hypothesis testing?
How can random error be reduced in a study?
How can random error be reduced in a study?
What is the purpose of hypothesis testing in epidemiological studies?
What is the purpose of hypothesis testing in epidemiological studies?
Why is it important to understand that P-Value is probabilistic and not deterministic in hypothesis testing?
Why is it important to understand that P-Value is probabilistic and not deterministic in hypothesis testing?
What is a potential limitation related to the width of a Confidence Interval?
What is a potential limitation related to the width of a Confidence Interval?
How can bias be avoided in research studies?
How can bias be avoided in research studies?
What type of bias is created during the assembly process of placing subjects into groups?
What type of bias is created during the assembly process of placing subjects into groups?
When is bias likely to occur during the research process?
When is bias likely to occur during the research process?
What is the primary purpose of a Confidence Interval in epidemiological studies?
What is the primary purpose of a Confidence Interval in epidemiological studies?
What does it mean if a Confidence Interval includes the null value?
What does it mean if a Confidence Interval includes the null value?
The Sensitivity of a screening test is calculated by:
The Sensitivity of a screening test is calculated by:
What is the primary reason why Sensitivity and Specificity are inversely proportional in screening tests?
What is the primary reason why Sensitivity and Specificity are inversely proportional in screening tests?
Positive Predictive Value (PPV) in screening tests is defined as:
Positive Predictive Value (PPV) in screening tests is defined as:
What is Negative Predictive Value (NPV) in screening tests primarily based on?
What is Negative Predictive Value (NPV) in screening tests primarily based on?
What aspect of a disease does Detectable Pre-Clinical Phase (DPCP) aim to address?
What aspect of a disease does Detectable Pre-Clinical Phase (DPCP) aim to address?
In the context of screening tests, High Reliability refers to:
In the context of screening tests, High Reliability refers to:
What is the primary purpose of Reflective Listening in patient interactions?
What is the primary purpose of Reflective Listening in patient interactions?
Which level of Reflective Listening involves the provider inferring the meaning and reflecting it back to the patient?
Which level of Reflective Listening involves the provider inferring the meaning and reflecting it back to the patient?
In Reflective Listening, what does 'Reflections of feeling' entail?
In Reflective Listening, what does 'Reflections of feeling' entail?
What is a common misconception about the Goals of Reflective Listening?
What is a common misconception about the Goals of Reflective Listening?
How does Reflective Listening aim to diffuse resistance in patients?
How does Reflective Listening aim to diffuse resistance in patients?
What is a key element to consider in order for motivational interviewing to work effectively?
What is a key element to consider in order for motivational interviewing to work effectively?
Which type of motivation is influenced by personal desires and those close to the patient?
Which type of motivation is influenced by personal desires and those close to the patient?
What is one of the goals of eliciting permission, providing feedback in a non-threatening manner, and eliciting the person's interpretation in motivational interviewing?
What is one of the goals of eliciting permission, providing feedback in a non-threatening manner, and eliciting the person's interpretation in motivational interviewing?
Which type of questions form the foundation of motivational interviews by encouraging open communication?
Which type of questions form the foundation of motivational interviews by encouraging open communication?
What should be avoided according to the principles of motivational interviewing?
What should be avoided according to the principles of motivational interviewing?
What characterizes a patient in the 'High Confidence' stage of change?
What characterizes a patient in the 'High Confidence' stage of change?
During the Clinical Discovery Phase of Community Water Fluoridation, why did Frederick McKay DDS find brown intrinsic teeth stains (mottled enamel)?
During the Clinical Discovery Phase of Community Water Fluoridation, why did Frederick McKay DDS find brown intrinsic teeth stains (mottled enamel)?
What level of water fluoridation was determined as the balance between caries prevention and fluorosis during the Epidemiological Phase?
What level of water fluoridation was determined as the balance between caries prevention and fluorosis during the Epidemiological Phase?
In what stage of change is a patient who is unsure of their decision to change or not change?
In what stage of change is a patient who is unsure of their decision to change or not change?
What was the main source of the brown intrinsic teeth stains discovered by Frederick McKay DDS?
What was the main source of the brown intrinsic teeth stains discovered by Frederick McKay DDS?
Which stage of change involves a patient who is stuck between wanting to change and not wanting to change?
Which stage of change involves a patient who is stuck between wanting to change and not wanting to change?
During the Clinical Discovery Phase, what type of residents did Frederick McKay DDS find to have brown intrinsic teeth stains due to mottled enamel?
During the Clinical Discovery Phase, what type of residents did Frederick McKay DDS find to have brown intrinsic teeth stains due to mottled enamel?
In the Epidemiological Phase, what was the determined range of water fluoridation levels for the best balance between caries prevention and fluorosis?
In the Epidemiological Phase, what was the determined range of water fluoridation levels for the best balance between caries prevention and fluorosis?
What was the primary goal of the Demonstration Phase in conducting clinical trials in pairs of cities?
What was the primary goal of the Demonstration Phase in conducting clinical trials in pairs of cities?
What is considered one of the 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century according to the text?
What is considered one of the 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century according to the text?
Why was 0.7 ppm of fluoride determined as the balance for water fluoridation regardless of the ambient temperature zone?
Why was 0.7 ppm of fluoride determined as the balance for water fluoridation regardless of the ambient temperature zone?
What role did deep artesian wells play in causing mottled enamel according to Frederick McKay DDS?
What role did deep artesian wells play in causing mottled enamel according to Frederick McKay DDS?
What is the main difference between Topical [Post-Eruptive] Effects and Systemic [Pre-Eruptive] Effects of fluoride, as described in the text?
What is the main difference between Topical [Post-Eruptive] Effects and Systemic [Pre-Eruptive] Effects of fluoride, as described in the text?
What is the role of fluoride in tooth formation according to the Systemic [Pre-Eruptive] Effects concept?
What is the role of fluoride in tooth formation according to the Systemic [Pre-Eruptive] Effects concept?
What has been the general trend in tooth decay rates due to water fluoridation?
What has been the general trend in tooth decay rates due to water fluoridation?
What is one potential danger highlighted in the text regarding fluoride toxicity?
What is one potential danger highlighted in the text regarding fluoride toxicity?
What is a major argument presented against community water fluoridation as discussed in the text?
What is a major argument presented against community water fluoridation as discussed in the text?
What economic benefit does the text mention regarding savings from investing in fluoridation?
What economic benefit does the text mention regarding savings from investing in fluoridation?
What is a major challenge faced by the Dental Care Delivery System's Safety Net System?
What is a major challenge faced by the Dental Care Delivery System's Safety Net System?
Which segment of the US population is mentioned to have the highest level of health disparities in terms of access to dental care?
Which segment of the US population is mentioned to have the highest level of health disparities in terms of access to dental care?
What characterizes the Traditional Dental Workforce according to the information provided?
What characterizes the Traditional Dental Workforce according to the information provided?
What is a significant advantage of the Private Practice Model in terms of payment methods?
What is a significant advantage of the Private Practice Model in terms of payment methods?
What is a critical need highlighted in the text that necessitates the existence of an Alternative Dental Workforce?
What is a critical need highlighted in the text that necessitates the existence of an Alternative Dental Workforce?
Why does the text emphasize the importance of the goal of health equity in relation to access to dental care?
Why does the text emphasize the importance of the goal of health equity in relation to access to dental care?
Which aspect of an association makes causality more likely according to the text?
Which aspect of an association makes causality more likely according to the text?
What did W. Hunter discover in 1911 regarding infections in the mouth?
What did W. Hunter discover in 1911 regarding infections in the mouth?
What is the primary benefit of nonsurgical periodontal therapy according to the text?
What is the primary benefit of nonsurgical periodontal therapy according to the text?
When considering causality, what should happen in relation to cause and effect?
When considering causality, what should happen in relation to cause and effect?
Which type of infection theory suggests that infections in the mouth can lead to problems in other parts of the body?
Which type of infection theory suggests that infections in the mouth can lead to problems in other parts of the body?
What is the association between periodontal disease and coronary heart disease based on studies?
What is the association between periodontal disease and coronary heart disease based on studies?
Flashcards
Epidemiology
Epidemiology
The study of disease frequency, distribution, and determinants in human populations.
Fixed Population
Fixed Population
A group whose membership is permanent and defined by an event.
Dynamic Population
Dynamic Population
A group whose membership changes over time, defined by being in or out of a state.
Prevalence
Prevalence
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Point Prevalence
Point Prevalence
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Period Prevalence
Period Prevalence
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Incidence
Incidence
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Cumulative Incidence (CI)
Cumulative Incidence (CI)
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Incidence Rate (IR)
Incidence Rate (IR)
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Person-time Rate
Person-time Rate
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2x2 Table
2x2 Table
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Prevalence Ratio
Prevalence Ratio
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Rate Ratio (RR)
Rate Ratio (RR)
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Rate Difference (RD)
Rate Difference (RD)
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Descriptive Studies
Descriptive Studies
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Case Reports
Case Reports
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Case Series
Case Series
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Cross-sectional study
Cross-sectional study
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Ecological study
Ecological study
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Study Notes
Measures of Disease Frequency
- Epidemiology: the study of factors affecting health and illness in human populations, focusing on frequency, distribution, and determinants of health-related states and events.
- Types of populations:
- Fixed population: permanent membership, defined by an event (e.g. baby boomers)
- Dynamic population: transient membership, defined by being in or out of a state (e.g. students in a school)
Disease Frequency
- Prevalence: proportion of people with a disease at a point in time, divided by the total population
- Types:
- Point prevalence: proportion of people with a disease at a specific moment in time
- Period prevalence: proportion of people with a disease within a range of time
- Types:
- Incidence: ratio of new cases of a disease, divided by the population at risk
- Types:
- Cumulative incidence (CI): proportion of new cases within a range of time, divided by the population at risk at the beginning
- Incidence rate (IR): proportion of new cases within a range of time, divided by the total time each member of the population is at risk
- Person-time rate: involves accruing total time each member of the population is at risk
- Types:
Measures of Association
- 2x2 table: comparison of disease presence and exposure to a risk factor
- Prevalence ratio: ratio of prevalence between exposed and unexposed groups
- Rate ratio (RR): ratio of cumulative incidence between exposed and unexposed groups, showing the strength of the association
- Rate difference (RD): difference in cumulative incidence between exposed and unexposed groups, measuring public health impact
Study Designs
- Descriptive studies: generate hypotheses, communicate clinical observations, and serve as the first step for analytical studies
- Case reports: detailed report of a single case, identifying new diseases or risk factors
- Case series: detailed report of a group of cases with similar problems
- Cross-sectional studies: observe exposure and disease at a single point in time
- Ecological studies: observe aggregate data from an entire population
Analytical Studies
- Observational studies: test hypotheses, comparing groups, and observing what occurs naturally
- Cohort studies: groups are determined by a common characteristic, and the development of disease is examined over time
- Case-control studies: determine the differences between those with and without a disease, analyzing their exposure history
- Experimental studies: healthy subjects are randomly placed into two groups, one exposed and one not, and followed to determine disease development
- Randomized control trials (RCTs): the most preferred study design to establish causality, with high internal validity
- Steps: enroll participants, random allocation, blinding, follow-up, and determine the outcome
- Quasi-experimental studies: similar to experimental studies, but occur naturally, without random allocation
- Types: posttest-only, pretest-posttest, and interrupted time series
- Randomized control trials (RCTs): the most preferred study design to establish causality, with high internal validity
Concepts of Studies
- Validity:
- Internal validity: determined by study design and analysis, confirming whether study conclusions reflect the study sample
- External validity: determined by the applicability of study results to the larger population
- Bias: any systematic error in the study design, data collection, or analysis that can lead to incorrect conclusions### Research Study Design
- Reproducibility: determines if recreating the study will yield the same results
- Causality: determines the association between the exposure and the disease
- Works well for infectious diseases
- Evidence of causality includes:
- Relationship in time: exposure should come before the disease
- Strength of association: calculate RR, RD, and OR to determine the association
- Dose-response relationship: the stronger the exposure, the higher the yield of cases of disease
- Replication of the findings: similar results should be reproducible with a similar study
- Biologic plausibility: must make sense from a biologic point of view
- Consideration of alternative explanations
- Cessation of exposure
- Specificity of the association
- Consistency with other knowledge
Error in Research
- Type 1 error (False Positive): observing a difference between groups that is not there
- Type 2 error (False Negative): missing a difference between groups that is there
- Sources of error:
- Random error: false results derived from the observation of things that happened by chance
- Reducing random error: increasing sample size, repeating the study and measurements, and hypothesis testing
- P-Value: determines the probability of the results and H0 being related
- If P-Value ≤ 0.05, then the results are considered statistically significant
- If P-Value > 0.05, then the results are considered statistically insignificant
- Disadvantages of P-Value:
- Does not rule out bias
- Does not rule out confounding
- Does not imply medical significance
- Does not imply biological significance
- Does not imply public health significance
- Confidence Intervals: involves a curve on a graph whose width determines the random error
- Wide CI indicates high random error
- Narrow CI indicates low random error
Screening for Disease
- Detectable pre-clinical phase (DPCP): includes the time span after the disease is detectable by a screening and before symptoms develop
- Characteristics of a good screening test:
- Simple
- Acceptable
- Cheap
- No risk of morbidity
- High reliability
- High validity
- Test validity: ideally, sensitivity and specificity would each be 1.0
- Sensitivity: probability that a diseased person will test positive
- Specificity: probability that a non-diseased person will test negative
- Positive predictive value (PPV): probability that a positive test will be the disease
- Negative predictive value (NPV): probability that a negative test will not be the disease
Motivational Interviewing
- Goal: build motivation for change and sustain that change over time
- Patient-centered approach
- Types of motivation:
- Intrinsic: derived from personal desires
- Extrinsic: influenced by the environment
- Goals for health behavior change:
- Treatment entry
- Treatment adherence
- Treatment engagement
- Treatment response
- Maintenance of treatment
- OARS: open-ended questions, affirmations, reflective listening, and self-motivational statements
- Levels of reflective listening:
- Repeating
- Rephrasing
- Paraphrasing
- Reflections of feeling
- Complex reflections of meaning
Community Water Fluoridation
- History:
- Clinical discovery phase (1901-1933)
- Epidemiological phase (1933-1945)
- Demonstration phase (1945-1954)
- Technology transfer phase (1950-present)
- Mechanisms of action:
- Topical [post-eruptive] effects
- Systemic [pre-eruptive] effects
- Safety and benefits:
- Reduced tooth decay by at least 25%
- Especially benefits children, the poor, and those with limited access to dental care
- Provides overall decrease in oral health problems
- Regulations:
- Environment Protection Agency (EPA)
- The Safe Drinking Water Act
- FDA
- DHHS
- Fluoride toxicity:
- Can be achieved by ingesting large amounts of fluoridated water
- Babies and children are more susceptible to fluoride toxicity
- Arguments against fluoridation:
- Not FDA approved
- No RCTs have been conducted
- Considered a forced mass medication of the public
- Fluoride used is not pharmaceutical quality
- Savings:
- $1 invested in fluoridation saves $38 in avoided costs for dental treatment
- Average of $1 per person per year is spent on fluoridation
Access to Dental Care
- Disparities:
- Poor populations
- Racial-ethnic minorities
- Special needs individuals
- Uninsured
- Public insurance
- Individuals living far from a dental practice
- Fear of the dentist
- Oral health ignorance
- Not enough dentists in an area
- Dental care delivery system:
- Private practice model
- Safety net system
- Alternative dental workforce
- Oral systemic disease associations:
- Life in general is less satisfying due to condition of mouth and teeth
- Oral health affects the quality of life
- Physically, socially, and psychologically
- Criteria for causality:
- Strength
- Consistency
- Specificity
- Temporality
- Biological gradient
- Plausibility
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Description
Explore the basics of epidemiology with a focus on measures of disease frequency. Learn about the importance of studying factors affecting the health and illness of human populations, including frequency, distribution, and determinants of health-related states and events. Understand the concepts of fixed and dynamic populations, along with the differences among ratio, proportion, and rate.
