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Questions and Answers
What is the anomeric carbon for aldoses such as glucose?
What is the anomeric carbon for aldoses such as glucose?
Fructose is represented in the pyranose form.
Fructose is represented in the pyranose form.
False
What distinct feature differentiates D-Glucose from D-Galactose?
What distinct feature differentiates D-Glucose from D-Galactose?
The configuration at the 4th carbon atom.
Mutarotation refers to the change in specific rotation of an optically active compound in solution with time, leading to an equilibrium value of __________.
Mutarotation refers to the change in specific rotation of an optically active compound in solution with time, leading to an equilibrium value of __________.
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Match the following sugars with their epimer differences:
Match the following sugars with their epimer differences:
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Which of the following statements is true regarding carbohydrates?
Which of the following statements is true regarding carbohydrates?
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The empirical formula of carbohydrates can be represented as (C.H2O)n.
The empirical formula of carbohydrates can be represented as (C.H2O)n.
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What is the storage form of energy in animals?
What is the storage form of energy in animals?
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Carbohydrates that consist of two sugar units are known as __________.
Carbohydrates that consist of two sugar units are known as __________.
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Match the following monosaccharides with their importance:
Match the following monosaccharides with their importance:
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Study Notes
Carbohydrates: Structure and Classification
- Carbohydrates are hydrates of carbon (H₂O of C).
- They are the most abundant organic molecules in nature.
- Their empirical formula is (CH₂O)ₙ.
- They can be classified as polyhydroxyaldehydes or ketones, or compounds that produce these on hydrolysis.
Importance of Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are a major dietary energy source (4 Cal/g) for all organisms.
- They play a vital role in forming other organic compounds like fats, amino acids, and ketone bodies.
- Carbohydrates (like glycoproteins and glycolipids) are integral components of cell membranes and participate in cellular processes like growth, adhesion, and fertilization.
- They are structural components within organisms, including plant fibers (cellulose), insect exoskeletons, and the cell walls of microorganisms.
- Carbohydrates serve as energy storage in the form of glycogen for immediate energy needs.
Classification of Carbohydrates
- Monosaccharides are simple sugars categorized by the number of carbon atoms (trioses, pentoses, hexoses, and heptoses).
- Aldoses contain an aldehyde group, while ketoses contain a ketone group.
- Disaccharides are formed by the linkage of two monosaccharides via glycosidic bonds. Examples include maltose, sucrose, lactose, and trehalose.
- Polysaccharides consist of many monosaccharide units linked together. Include homopolysacchrides (unbranched and branched) and heteropolysaccharides (two or more types of monomers). Examples of Carbohydrates are starch, glycogen, cellulose, inulin, dextrans, chitin, hyaluronic acid, heparin, chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and keratan sulfate
Importance of Specific Monosaccharides
- Glyceraldehyde is an intermediate in glycolysis and the HMP shunt.
- Erythrose is an intermediate in the HMP shunt.
- Ribose is an intermediate in the HMP shunt and is a crucial component of nucleic acids.
- Glucose provides energy and is a precursor for amino acids and fatty acids.
- Galactose is a necessary component of milk and produces lactate.
Isomerism in Carbohydrates
- D- and L- isomers are stereoisomers, differing only in the configuration around the chiral carbon atoms. Naturally occurring sugars are D-sugars.
- Anomers are isomers that differ in configuration only around the anomeric carbon atom, which is the carbonyl carbon in the cyclic form. Alpha and beta forms are common anomers of sugars like glucose.
- Optical activity refers to the ability of a substance to rotate the plane of polarized light. D-glucose is dextrorotatory (+). L-glucose is levorotatory (-).
Structure of Carbohydrates
- Structures of D-glyceraldehyde, D-glucose, and D-fructose are shown in figures. Different ways of representing glucose (open chain, Fischer projection, Haworth formula) are described.
- Formation of ring structures (pyranoses and furanoses) by hemiacetal or hemiketal formation is discussed.
- Anomeric carbon is important in the cyclic form of monosaccharides, as it's involved in the formation of glycosidic linkages in sugars.
Reactions of Monosaccharides
- Oxidation, reduction, dehydration, esterification, and glycoside formation reactions are possible.
Reducing Properties of Carbohydrates
- Reducing sugars have free aldehyde or ketone groups.
- Identifying reducing sugars is possible through Benedict's test, Fehling's test, Barfoed's test and Osazone test.
Benedict's Test: Principle, Procedure, and Clinical Applications
- Benedict's test uses Cu²⁺ to determine reducing sugars.
- The test procedure includes heating a urine sample along with Benedict's reagent.
- The test's color changes indicate varying glucose levels in urine;
- The test is routinely used in diagnosing diabetes.
Importance of Disaccharides
- Maltose is a component of malt, providing glucose.
- Lactose is a component of milk, providing glucose and galactose.
- Sucrose is a component of sugarcane, and it's a non-reducing sugar.
- Trehalose is found in plants, fungi, and some insects.
Polysaccharides
- Homopolysaccharides are polymers of a single type of monosaccharide (starch, glycogen, cellulose, inulin, dextrans, and chitin).
- Heteropolysaccharides are polymers with more than one type of monosaccharide (Hyaluronic acid, heparin, chondroitin sulphate, dermatan sulphate, and keratan sulphate).
Importance of Specific Polysaccharides
- Starch is the storage carbohydrate for plants, made up of amylose and amylopectin.
- Glycogen is the primary storage carbohydrate for animals, highly branched.
- Cellulose is a structural component of plant cell walls.
- Inulin is found in some vegetables and is used in renal function tests.
- Chitin is a structural component of exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans
Clinical Aspects of Carbohydrates
- Lactose intolerance is a condition resulting from a deficiency in the lactase enzyme, hindering lactose digestion.
- Mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) are inborn errors of metabolism stemming from flawed lysosomal enzyme function. Symptoms and effects are related to accumulation of glycosaminoglycans.. Proteoglycans and Glycoproteins.
Proteoglycans & Glycoproteins
- Proteoglycans are proteins heavily glycosylated and found in the extracellular matrix.
- Glycoproteins have less extensive glycosylation and are attached to integral membrane proteins.
Other Important Details
- A flowchart or figure showing the steps in the Benedict's test is missing from your provided material. More detailed information about the specific glycosidic linkages found in the various polysaccharides would enhance understanding.
- More in-depth information from your files is necessary to get a complete summary across each topic.
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Description
Explore the essential structure and classification of carbohydrates in this quiz. Understand their significance as a dietary energy source and their role in various biological processes. Test your knowledge on monosaccharides, polysaccharides, and their functions in living organisms.
