Carbohydrate Metabolism and ATP Production

The process by which the body breaks down and uses carbohydrates for energy and other functions.

A process where ATP is made using energy from electron transfer to oxygen, in the mitochondria.

ATP production by directly transferring a high-energy phosphate group to ADP from another molecule.

The breakdown of glucose to pyruvate producing ATP. Anaerobic or aerobic.

Glycolysis without oxygen leading to lactate formation.

Glycolysis in the presence of oxygen, producing more ATP than anaerobic glycolysis.

A molecule that carries electrons in cellular respiration, producing 3 ATP.

A molecule that carries electrons in cellular respiration, producing 2 ATP.

A chemical bond that releases more than 7,000 calories per bond on hydrolysis. Often phosphate bonds.

A chemical bond that releases less than 4,000 calories per bond on hydrolysis. Often phosphate bonds.

Glucose is converted to glucose-6-phosphate, an irreversible process crucial for energy extraction.

Enzyme that converts glucose to glucose-6-phosphate in most cells, excluding liver and pancreas.

Enzyme converting glucose to glucose-6-phosphate primarily in liver and pancreatic cells.

Hexokinase is present in most tissues and is less sensitive to blood glucose levels, while glucokinase is primarily in liver and is induced by high blood glucose.

Blood glucose concentration above 5 mmol/L.

Metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce ATP.

A series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to produce energy and other chemicals.

Cancer cells produce lactate in this manner by having high glycolysis and less Krebs cycle activity compared to normal cells.

Cellular organelles where aerobic respiration takes place.

Glucose-6-phosphate is activated for energy production, regardless of blood glucose levels.

Glucose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose-6-phosphate by phosphohexose isomerase.

PFK-1 is the key regulatory enzyme in glycolysis, converting fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-diphosphate, using ATP.

Fructose-1,6-diphosphate is created from fructose-6-phosphate by PFK-1, a crucial step in glycolysis, using ATP.

Fructose-1,6-diphosphate is split into two 3-carbon molecules (triose phosphates) by aldolase.

The two 3-carbon molecules (triose phosphates) are interconverted to ensure equilibrium, and that one is favored.

Involves the conversion of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-2,6-diphosphate.

Different forms of aldolase (e.g., A and B) exist in different tissues and have varying substrates.

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized to 1,3-diphosphoglycerate by glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase in presence of NAD and Pi

1,3-diphosphoglycerate is converted to 3-phosphoglycerate by phosphoglycerate kinase, producing ATP in a substrate-level phosphorylation reaction.

Moves a phosphate group from C3 to C2 in 3-phosphoglycerate, creating 2-phosphoglycerate using 2,3-biphosphoglycerate as intermediate.

Enolase, in presence of Mg+2 or Mn+2, catalyzes dehydration to convert 2-phosphoglycerate into phosphoenolpyruvate.

The breakdown of glucose without oxygen, yielding a net gain of 2 ATP.

The breakdown of glucose with oxygen, producing 6-8 ATP.

ATP synthesis where a phosphate group is directly transferred from a substrate to ADP.

Key enzyme in glycolysis, regulating its speed.

Controlling glycolysis through enzymes (like phosphofructokinase-1) and hormones (insulin, adrenaline, glucagon).

Inhibits glycolysis by blocking hexokinase and glucokinase.

Increases glycolysis by stimulating the synthesis of key enzymes and increasing glucose transport.

Inhibit glycolysis by decreasing the activity of pyruvate kinase.

Arsenate substitutes for phosphate in glycolysis, creating an unstable compound that decomposes, resulting in less ATP production.

Iodoacetate is a potent inhibitor of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase due to its interaction with the enzyme's sulfhydryl group.

Fluoride inhibits the enzyme enolase, stopping glycolysis, often used in blood glucose sample preparation to measure accurate levels.

Glycolysis produces ATP, the main source of energy in certain tissues like red blood cells and muscle cells.

Pyruvate, a product of glycolysis, enters the Krebs cycle, connecting both metabolic pathways.

Glycolysis connects to fat metabolism, converting dihydroxyacetone phosphate to glycerol 3-phosphate in fat tissues.

Glycolysis connects to amino acids, converting 3-phosphoglycerate to serine and pyruvate to alanine (and vice versa).

2,3-DPG is a glycolytic byproduct crucial for tissue oxygenation.

Glycolysis is a major source of lactate, a gluconeogenic substance.

Gluconeogenesis is the metabolic reversal of glycolysis, creating glucose.

Glycolysis is the major metabolic route for dietary fructose.

Red blood cells rely solely on glycolysis for energy, creating 2 ATPs, lactate being the final product.

Glucose absorption in red blood cells doesn't depend on insulin.

Red blood cells use NADH+H+ (produced from glycolysis) to reduce methemoglobin, vital for oxygen transport.

A side pathway in RBC glycolysis that restructures ATP to 2,3-DPG (needed for oxygen delivery to tissues).

1,3-diphosphoglycerate gets transformed into 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) through phosphate transfer.

2,3-DPG gets broken down into 3-phosphoglycerate using 2,3-DPG phosphatase.