Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the total ATP yield from one molecule of glucose after the complete cellular respiration process?
What is the total ATP yield from one molecule of glucose after the complete cellular respiration process?
- About 18 or 20 ATP
- About 30 or 32 ATP (correct)
- About 24 or 26 ATP
- About 20 or 22 ATP
Which stages of cellular respiration take place in the mitochondria?
Which stages of cellular respiration take place in the mitochondria?
- Glycolysis and Pyruvate Oxidation
- Pyruvate Oxidation and Oxidative Phosphorylation (correct)
- Glycolysis and Citric Acid Cycle
- Only the Citric Acid Cycle
Which of the following correctly describes the products of glycolysis?
Which of the following correctly describes the products of glycolysis?
- 2 NADH and 4 ATP
- 2 Pyruvate and 2 ATP (correct)
- 1 Acetyl CoA and 2 NADH
- 6 NADH and 2 ATP
What are the electron shuttles that carry electrons to the electron transport chain?
What are the electron shuttles that carry electrons to the electron transport chain?
During which process is Acetyl CoA formed?
During which process is Acetyl CoA formed?
How many NADH are produced during the complete cycle of the Citric Acid Cycle?
How many NADH are produced during the complete cycle of the Citric Acid Cycle?
What is the role of chemiosmosis in cellular respiration?
What is the role of chemiosmosis in cellular respiration?
Which metabolic pathway does NOT occur in the cytosol?
Which metabolic pathway does NOT occur in the cytosol?
What is the primary function of isocitrate lyase in the glyoxylate cycle?
What is the primary function of isocitrate lyase in the glyoxylate cycle?
During the glyoxylate cycle, malate can be converted into which of the following?
During the glyoxylate cycle, malate can be converted into which of the following?
Why do plant seeds store fuel as lipids instead of carbohydrates?
Why do plant seeds store fuel as lipids instead of carbohydrates?
What is the result of acetyl-CoA interacting with glyoxylate?
What is the result of acetyl-CoA interacting with glyoxylate?
What key role does sucrose play in plant seedlings?
What key role does sucrose play in plant seedlings?
What happens to succinate after it enters the mitochondrial matrix?
What happens to succinate after it enters the mitochondrial matrix?
What occurs immediately after glucose is transported into cells?
What occurs immediately after glucose is transported into cells?
What is one advantage of using lipids as an energy source over carbohydrates for seeds?
What is one advantage of using lipids as an energy source over carbohydrates for seeds?
What is the net reaction of gluconeogenesis?
What is the net reaction of gluconeogenesis?
How many high-energy phosphate bonds must be hydrolyzed for gluconeogenesis to be thermodynamically favorable?
How many high-energy phosphate bonds must be hydrolyzed for gluconeogenesis to be thermodynamically favorable?
What is the net free energy change for the conversion of pyruvate to glucose during gluconeogenesis?
What is the net free energy change for the conversion of pyruvate to glucose during gluconeogenesis?
Immediately after a meal, what is the primary source of blood glucose?
Immediately after a meal, what is the primary source of blood glucose?
Which molecule is NOT a substrate in the net reaction of gluconeogenesis?
Which molecule is NOT a substrate in the net reaction of gluconeogenesis?
What is the purpose of the carboxylation of pyruvate in gluconeogenesis?
What is the purpose of the carboxylation of pyruvate in gluconeogenesis?
What is the energy change ($ riangle G^O$') associated with the conversion of pyruvate to oxalacetate?
What is the energy change ($ riangle G^O$') associated with the conversion of pyruvate to oxalacetate?
Which cofactor is employed in the pyruvate carboxylation process?
Which cofactor is employed in the pyruvate carboxylation process?
Where does the conversion of pyruvate to oxalacetate take place?
Where does the conversion of pyruvate to oxalacetate take place?
What is the length of the arm formed by the biotin-lysine complex during carboxylation?
What is the length of the arm formed by the biotin-lysine complex during carboxylation?
What type of reaction is the conversion of pyruvate to oxalacetate considered to be?
What type of reaction is the conversion of pyruvate to oxalacetate considered to be?
What role does ATP play in the mechanism of pyruvate carboxylase?
What role does ATP play in the mechanism of pyruvate carboxylase?
Which of the following statements about pyruvate carboxylase is incorrect?
Which of the following statements about pyruvate carboxylase is incorrect?
What is the role of alanine aminotransferase in the conversion of alanine to pyruvate?
What is the role of alanine aminotransferase in the conversion of alanine to pyruvate?
Which coenzyme is involved in the reaction where alanine is converted to pyruvate?
Which coenzyme is involved in the reaction where alanine is converted to pyruvate?
Which precursor is converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)?
Which precursor is converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)?
What type of process involves the conversion of lactate to pyruvate?
What type of process involves the conversion of lactate to pyruvate?
Which statement correctly describes gluconeogenesis?
Which statement correctly describes gluconeogenesis?
What does the catabolism of peptides and proteins provide for gluconeogenesis?
What does the catabolism of peptides and proteins provide for gluconeogenesis?
Which of the following is NOT a step in gluconeogenesis?
Which of the following is NOT a step in gluconeogenesis?
What separates gluconeogenesis from glycolysis in terms of reaction pathways?
What separates gluconeogenesis from glycolysis in terms of reaction pathways?
What is the role of fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase in relation to biphosphatase activity?
What is the role of fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase in relation to biphosphatase activity?
What is the phosphate source involved in the glucose-6-phosphatase reaction?
What is the phosphate source involved in the glucose-6-phosphatase reaction?
In what type of cells is glucose-6-phosphatase NOT present?
In what type of cells is glucose-6-phosphatase NOT present?
Which component directly enables the cleavage of phosphate in the glucose-6-phosphatase reaction?
Which component directly enables the cleavage of phosphate in the glucose-6-phosphatase reaction?
What enhances the inhibition of biphosphatase by AMP?
What enhances the inhibition of biphosphatase by AMP?
What is the approximate ΔG value for the glucose-6-phosphatase reaction in the liver?
What is the approximate ΔG value for the glucose-6-phosphatase reaction in the liver?
What is the role of the transport proteins T1, T2, and T3 in the glucose-6-phosphatase system?
What is the role of the transport proteins T1, T2, and T3 in the glucose-6-phosphatase system?
Which compound inhibits both biphosphatase and fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase?
Which compound inhibits both biphosphatase and fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase?
How many molecules of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP) are produced from 12 G3P?
How many molecules of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP) are produced from 12 G3P?
What additional molecule is used to regenerate ribulose-5-phosphate (RuBP) after utilizing fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP)?
What additional molecule is used to regenerate ribulose-5-phosphate (RuBP) after utilizing fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP)?
Which intermediate is in isomeric equilibrium with G3P?
Which intermediate is in isomeric equilibrium with G3P?
From the initial 12 G3P, how many molecules ultimately contribute to produce hexose compounds during glycolysis?
From the initial 12 G3P, how many molecules ultimately contribute to produce hexose compounds during glycolysis?
Which of the following statements is correct about the molecules utilized in the conversion from FBP?
Which of the following statements is correct about the molecules utilized in the conversion from FBP?
What is the primary purpose of photosynthesis in ecosystems?
What is the primary purpose of photosynthesis in ecosystems?
Which of the following is a consequence of light energy absorption by chlorophyll?
Which of the following is a consequence of light energy absorption by chlorophyll?
How is carbon dioxide utilized during the process of photosynthesis?
How is carbon dioxide utilized during the process of photosynthesis?
What is the overall relationship between solar energy and biological reactions on Earth?
What is the overall relationship between solar energy and biological reactions on Earth?
Which statement correctly describes the role of photosystems in photosynthesis?
Which statement correctly describes the role of photosystems in photosynthesis?
What key processes are involved in the formation of carbohydrates during photosynthesis?
What key processes are involved in the formation of carbohydrates during photosynthesis?
How does photosynthesis impact carbon levels in the atmosphere annually?
How does photosynthesis impact carbon levels in the atmosphere annually?
What is a primary source of free energy necessary for biological reactions on Earth?
What is a primary source of free energy necessary for biological reactions on Earth?
What are the products of the dark reactions of photosynthesis?
What are the products of the dark reactions of photosynthesis?
In oxygenic photosynthesis, which reactant is oxidized?
In oxygenic photosynthesis, which reactant is oxidized?
How much free energy is required to reduce 1 mole of CO2 during photosynthesis?
How much free energy is required to reduce 1 mole of CO2 during photosynthesis?
What type of organisms utilize H2S as a reductant in photosynthesis?
What type of organisms utilize H2S as a reductant in photosynthesis?
What is the overall equation for the process of photosynthesis?
What is the overall equation for the process of photosynthesis?
Which of the following best describes anoxygenic photosynthesis?
Which of the following best describes anoxygenic photosynthesis?
What is the main source of energy for the light reactions of photosynthesis?
What is the main source of energy for the light reactions of photosynthesis?
What do the ATP and NADPH generated in the light reactions primarily facilitate?
What do the ATP and NADPH generated in the light reactions primarily facilitate?
What is the primary function of plastoquinone in photosystem II (PSII)?
What is the primary function of plastoquinone in photosystem II (PSII)?
How does plastoquinone's structure contribute to its function?
How does plastoquinone's structure contribute to its function?
What is the reduced form of plastoquinone called?
What is the reduced form of plastoquinone called?
What type of reaction occurs when plastoquinone is converted to its reduced form?
What type of reaction occurs when plastoquinone is converted to its reduced form?
Which of the following best describes the structure of the cytochrome b6f complex?
Which of the following best describes the structure of the cytochrome b6f complex?
What is the role of the iron-sulfur clusters in the cytochrome b6f complex?
What is the role of the iron-sulfur clusters in the cytochrome b6f complex?
What is one similarity between plastoquinone and coenzyme Q?
What is one similarity between plastoquinone and coenzyme Q?
Which component does the cytochrome b6f complex interact with to shuttle electrons?
Which component does the cytochrome b6f complex interact with to shuttle electrons?
What is the primary function of type I photosystems in photosynthesis?
What is the primary function of type I photosystems in photosynthesis?
What distinguishes the chlorophyll a dimers of PSI from those of PSII?
What distinguishes the chlorophyll a dimers of PSI from those of PSII?
What is the role of PSII in the process of photosynthesis?
What is the role of PSII in the process of photosynthesis?
Which term describes the arrangement of electron carriers between PSI and PSII based on standard reduction potential?
Which term describes the arrangement of electron carriers between PSI and PSII based on standard reduction potential?
Which component acts as the terminal electron acceptor in type I photosystems?
Which component acts as the terminal electron acceptor in type I photosystems?
What byproduct is produced by the splitting of water in PSII?
What byproduct is produced by the splitting of water in PSII?
What is the main purpose of the electron transport chain in photosynthesis?
What is the main purpose of the electron transport chain in photosynthesis?
What is the significance of the 'zigzag' arrangement of electron carriers in the Z scheme?
What is the significance of the 'zigzag' arrangement of electron carriers in the Z scheme?
What is the role of the thylakoid membrane in photosynthesis?
What is the role of the thylakoid membrane in photosynthesis?
Which molecule is produced as a byproduct during the process of splitting water in photosynthesis?
Which molecule is produced as a byproduct during the process of splitting water in photosynthesis?
What is the significance of the proton motive force in the thylakoid membrane?
What is the significance of the proton motive force in the thylakoid membrane?
What type of energy transfer occurs in light-harvesting complexes of photosystems?
What type of energy transfer occurs in light-harvesting complexes of photosystems?
Which component of a photosystem is responsible for the primary electron acceptor?
Which component of a photosystem is responsible for the primary electron acceptor?
How is NADPH generated in the photosynthetic process?
How is NADPH generated in the photosynthetic process?
What is the energy change that occurs when an electron in chlorophyll is excited?
What is the energy change that occurs when an electron in chlorophyll is excited?
What happens to excited electrons in chlorophyll once they return to the ground state?
What happens to excited electrons in chlorophyll once they return to the ground state?
Which of the following statements best describes the role of chlorophyll a?
Which of the following statements best describes the role of chlorophyll a?
What component of photosynthesis is associated with creating a high concentration of H+ ions in the thylakoid space?
What component of photosynthesis is associated with creating a high concentration of H+ ions in the thylakoid space?
What is the primary function of the Calvin Cycle in photosynthesis?
What is the primary function of the Calvin Cycle in photosynthesis?
In the context of light absorption, what is resonance energy transfer?
In the context of light absorption, what is resonance energy transfer?
What is released during the electron transport process associated with photosystems?
What is released during the electron transport process associated with photosystems?
What is the main role of ATP synthase in the thylakoid membrane?
What is the main role of ATP synthase in the thylakoid membrane?
What happens to the electrons removed from glucose during its complete oxidation?
What happens to the electrons removed from glucose during its complete oxidation?
How is the free energy change ($ riangle G^O$') of the oxidation of glucose characterized?
How is the free energy change ($ riangle G^O$') of the oxidation of glucose characterized?
What role do proton gradients play in ATP synthesis during cellular respiration?
What role do proton gradients play in ATP synthesis during cellular respiration?
In the electron transport chain, what is the final electron acceptor?
In the electron transport chain, what is the final electron acceptor?
Which of the following statements about the oxidation of glucose is incorrect?
Which of the following statements about the oxidation of glucose is incorrect?
What is the primary role of the electron transport chain in cellular respiration?
What is the primary role of the electron transport chain in cellular respiration?
Which component of the electron transport chain accepts electrons as part of the process?
Which component of the electron transport chain accepts electrons as part of the process?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the energy role of the electron transport chain?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the energy role of the electron transport chain?
What is a key characteristic of the proteins involved in the electron transport chain, such as cytochromes?
What is a key characteristic of the proteins involved in the electron transport chain, such as cytochromes?
Which outcome is NOT a direct function of the electron transport chain?
Which outcome is NOT a direct function of the electron transport chain?
What cofactor does complex I contain that is bound within its structure?
What cofactor does complex I contain that is bound within its structure?
Which components are involved in the electron transfer pathway from NADH to coenzyme Q in complex I?
Which components are involved in the electron transfer pathway from NADH to coenzyme Q in complex I?
How many iron-sulfur clusters are present in complex I?
How many iron-sulfur clusters are present in complex I?
What is the primary role of FMN in complex I?
What is the primary role of FMN in complex I?
What is the directional flow of electrons within complex I?
What is the directional flow of electrons within complex I?
Which of the following correctly describes the structural organization of mammalian complex I?
Which of the following correctly describes the structural organization of mammalian complex I?
What could be a consequence of malfunctioning iron-sulfur clusters in complex I?
What could be a consequence of malfunctioning iron-sulfur clusters in complex I?
Which molecule acts as the final electron acceptor from complex I?
Which molecule acts as the final electron acceptor from complex I?
What is the primary function of Complex III in cellular respiration?
What is the primary function of Complex III in cellular respiration?
How many protons does Complex III pump into the intermembrane space for every two electrons transferred?
How many protons does Complex III pump into the intermembrane space for every two electrons transferred?
Which of the following correctly describes the composition of mammalian Complex III?
Which of the following correctly describes the composition of mammalian Complex III?
What is the molecular weight of mammalian Complex III?
What is the molecular weight of mammalian Complex III?
What role does cytochrome c play in the process facilitated by Complex III?
What role does cytochrome c play in the process facilitated by Complex III?
Which statement about the electron transfer in Complex III is correct?
Which statement about the electron transfer in Complex III is correct?
During the Q Cycle, what is a significant outcome of the interaction between Complex III and CoQH2?
During the Q Cycle, what is a significant outcome of the interaction between Complex III and CoQH2?
What component of Complex III is primarily responsible for proton pumping?
What component of Complex III is primarily responsible for proton pumping?
What role does Coenzyme Q play in the electron transport chain?
What role does Coenzyme Q play in the electron transport chain?
Which complexes transfer electrons to Coenzyme Q?
Which complexes transfer electrons to Coenzyme Q?
What type of clusters are linked to Coenzyme Q?
What type of clusters are linked to Coenzyme Q?
What is a primary feature of complex II in the electron transport chain?
What is a primary feature of complex II in the electron transport chain?
Which of the following best describes the function of iron-sulfur clusters in the electron transport chain?
Which of the following best describes the function of iron-sulfur clusters in the electron transport chain?
What is the consequence of Coenzyme Q collecting electrons from different sources?
What is the consequence of Coenzyme Q collecting electrons from different sources?
What is the relationship between complex I and Coenzyme Q?
What is the relationship between complex I and Coenzyme Q?
How does Coenzyme Q interact with flavoproteins in the electron transport chain?
How does Coenzyme Q interact with flavoproteins in the electron transport chain?
What is the role of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase in the glycerophosphate shuttle?
What is the role of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase in the glycerophosphate shuttle?
What determines the favorability of ATP transport via the ATP-ADP translocase?
What determines the favorability of ATP transport via the ATP-ADP translocase?
How many total protein components does the ATP-ADP translocase represent in the mitochondrial membrane?
How many total protein components does the ATP-ADP translocase represent in the mitochondrial membrane?
Which enzyme is responsible for the oxidation of glycerol-3-phosphate in the glycerophosphate shuttle?
Which enzyme is responsible for the oxidation of glycerol-3-phosphate in the glycerophosphate shuttle?
What is the final step in the glycerophosphate shuttle?
What is the final step in the glycerophosphate shuttle?
What does cytosolic NADH convert into during the glycerophosphate shuttle?
What does cytosolic NADH convert into during the glycerophosphate shuttle?
What role does the ATP-ADP translocase serve in mitochondria?
What role does the ATP-ADP translocase serve in mitochondria?
Which of the following pathways directly involves transport through the mitochondrial membrane?
Which of the following pathways directly involves transport through the mitochondrial membrane?
Flashcards
Glycolysis
Glycolysis
The breakdown of glucose in the cytosol to produce pyruvate
Pyruvate Oxidation
Pyruvate Oxidation
Conversion of pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
Citric Acid Cycle
Citric Acid Cycle
A cyclical series of reactions that utilizes Acetyl CoA to produce energy-carrying molecules
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative Phosphorylation
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ATP Yield (Glycolysis)
ATP Yield (Glycolysis)
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ATP Yield (Oxidative Phosphorylation)
ATP Yield (Oxidative Phosphorylation)
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Electron Shuttles
Electron Shuttles
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TCA Cycle
TCA Cycle
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Gluconeogenesis Precursors
Gluconeogenesis Precursors
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Lactate Conversion
Lactate Conversion
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Alanine Conversion
Alanine Conversion
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Glycerol Conversion
Glycerol Conversion
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Gluconeogenesis Pathway
Gluconeogenesis Pathway
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Why Gluconeogenesis?
Why Gluconeogenesis?
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Gluconeogenesis Requirements
Gluconeogenesis Requirements
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Gluconeogenesis Location
Gluconeogenesis Location
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Glyoxylate Cycle
Glyoxylate Cycle
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Isocitrate Lyase
Isocitrate Lyase
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Malate Synthase
Malate Synthase
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Why do plants store lipids in seeds?
Why do plants store lipids in seeds?
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How does the glyoxylate cycle contribute to seedling growth?
How does the glyoxylate cycle contribute to seedling growth?
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What is the key difference between lipids and carbohydrates in terms of energy storage?
What is the key difference between lipids and carbohydrates in terms of energy storage?
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What is the role of succinate in the glyoxylate cycle?
What is the role of succinate in the glyoxylate cycle?
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What are the two possible fates of malate in the glyoxylate cycle?
What are the two possible fates of malate in the glyoxylate cycle?
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Pyruvate to Oxalacetate
Pyruvate to Oxalacetate
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Pyruvate Carboxylase
Pyruvate Carboxylase
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Biotin's Role
Biotin's Role
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Gluconeogenesis Transport
Gluconeogenesis Transport
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Compartmentalization in Gluconeogenesis
Compartmentalization in Gluconeogenesis
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Why is Pyruvate Carboxylation Compartmentalized?
Why is Pyruvate Carboxylation Compartmentalized?
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Oxalacetate Transport
Oxalacetate Transport
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Gluconeogenesis Energy Requirements
Gluconeogenesis Energy Requirements
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Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis
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Why is gluconeogenesis important?
Why is gluconeogenesis important?
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What makes gluconeogenesis thermodynamically favorable?
What makes gluconeogenesis thermodynamically favorable?
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What are some important precursors for gluconeogenesis?
What are some important precursors for gluconeogenesis?
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Where does gluconeogenesis occur?
Where does gluconeogenesis occur?
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Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate
Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate
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AMP's Role in Gluconeogenesis
AMP's Role in Gluconeogenesis
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Citrate's Influence
Citrate's Influence
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Glucose-6-Phosphatase: What is it?
Glucose-6-Phosphatase: What is it?
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Glucose-6-Phosphatase: Where is it?
Glucose-6-Phosphatase: Where is it?
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Why No Gluconeogenesis in Muscle?
Why No Gluconeogenesis in Muscle?
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Glucose-6-Phosphatase System
Glucose-6-Phosphatase System
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ΔG of Glucose-6-Phosphatase
ΔG of Glucose-6-Phosphatase
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Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
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Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll
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Photosystems I and II
Photosystems I and II
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Light-Dependent Reactions
Light-Dependent Reactions
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Calvin Cycle
Calvin Cycle
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ATP
ATP
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NADPH
NADPH
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How is Carbon Dioxide used in Photosynthesis?
How is Carbon Dioxide used in Photosynthesis?
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Photosystem I
Photosystem I
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Photosystem II
Photosystem II
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P700
P700
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P680
P680
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Z Scheme
Z Scheme
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Standard Reduction Potentials
Standard Reduction Potentials
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Chemiosmotic ATP Synthesis
Chemiosmotic ATP Synthesis
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Noncyclic Photosynthesis
Noncyclic Photosynthesis
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Plastoquinone (PQ)
Plastoquinone (PQ)
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Plastoquinol (PQH2)
Plastoquinol (PQH2)
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Why is plastoquinone important?
Why is plastoquinone important?
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Cytochrome b6f Complex
Cytochrome b6f Complex
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Plastocyanin (PC)
Plastocyanin (PC)
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How does the cytochrome b6f complex contribute to ATP synthesis?
How does the cytochrome b6f complex contribute to ATP synthesis?
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What is the relationship between plastoquinone and coenzyme Q?
What is the relationship between plastoquinone and coenzyme Q?
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Why is the cytochrome b6f complex homologous to the cytochrome bc1 complex of mitochondria?
Why is the cytochrome b6f complex homologous to the cytochrome bc1 complex of mitochondria?
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G3P/DHAP Equilibrium
G3P/DHAP Equilibrium
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G3P + DHAP: Interconvertible Stock
G3P + DHAP: Interconvertible Stock
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FBP: Hexose Product
FBP: Hexose Product
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Ru5P Regeneration
Ru5P Regeneration
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Why this Cycle?
Why this Cycle?
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Light Harvesting Complexes
Light Harvesting Complexes
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Reaction Center Complex
Reaction Center Complex
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Primary Electron Acceptor
Primary Electron Acceptor
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Thylakoid Membrane
Thylakoid Membrane
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Thylakoid Space
Thylakoid Space
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Electron Transport Chain
Electron Transport Chain
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Proton Motive Force
Proton Motive Force
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ATP Synthase
ATP Synthase
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Stroma
Stroma
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Photosynthesis Reaction
Photosynthesis Reaction
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Oxygenic Photosynthesis
Oxygenic Photosynthesis
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Anoxygenic Photosynthesis
Anoxygenic Photosynthesis
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Standard ΔG of Glucose Oxidation
Standard ΔG of Glucose Oxidation
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Light Reactions
Light Reactions
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Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle)
Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle)
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Reduction Potential
Reduction Potential
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Cytosolic NADH Entry
Cytosolic NADH Entry
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Proton Gradient
Proton Gradient
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Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
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Cytochromes
Cytochromes
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Chemiosmotic Coupling
Chemiosmotic Coupling
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Complex II
Complex II
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Coenzyme Q (Ubiquinone)
Coenzyme Q (Ubiquinone)
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Iron-sulfur Clusters
Iron-sulfur Clusters
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Complex IV
Complex IV
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Coenzyme Q (CoQ)
Coenzyme Q (CoQ)
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Structure of Complex I
Structure of Complex I
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Electron Transport
Electron Transport
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Redox Potential
Redox Potential
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CoQH2
CoQH2
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Proton Pumping
Proton Pumping
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Intermembrane Space (IMS)
Intermembrane Space (IMS)
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Glycerol-3-Phosphate Shuttle
Glycerol-3-Phosphate Shuttle
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FADH2 in the Glycerol-3-Phosphate Shuttle
FADH2 in the Glycerol-3-Phosphate Shuttle
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ATP-ADP Translocase
ATP-ADP Translocase
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Membrane Potential's Role in ATP-ADP Transport
Membrane Potential's Role in ATP-ADP Transport
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Where is ATP-ADP Translocase located?
Where is ATP-ADP Translocase located?
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Why is ATP-ADP Translocase important?
Why is ATP-ADP Translocase important?
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Why is FADH2 less efficient?
Why is FADH2 less efficient?
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What is the importance of the Glycerol-3-Phosphate Shuttle?
What is the importance of the Glycerol-3-Phosphate Shuttle?
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Study Notes
Carbohydrate Metabolism Pathways
- Glucose 6-phosphate is the starting point for several pathways including glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and glycogen synthesis.
- Oxidative reactions involve the conversion of 3 glucose 6-phosphate molecules to 6 NADPH and 3 CO2.
- This also leads to 3 molecules of ribulose 5-phosphate.
- Ribulose-5-phosphate further converts into xylulose 5-phosphate, ribose 5-phosphate, and sedoheptulose 7-phosphate.
- Non-oxidative reactions interconvert pentose sugars to yield glycolysis intermediates.
- The pathways intertwine and share intermediates, enabling flexibility in metabolism.
ATP Yield per Glucose
- Glycolysis yields 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
- Pyruvate oxidation yields 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
- Citric acid cycle yields 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2 per glucose molecule.
- Oxidative phosphorylation produces an additional 26-28 ATP, resulting in a maximum yield of 30-32 ATP per glucose.
Fate of Carbon in TCA Cycle
- Acetyl-CoA enters the TCA cycle, and carbons are released as CO2.
- The oxidation-reduction enzymes and coenzymes involved are shown in magenta, while the entry of acetyl-CoA into the TCA cycle is indicated by a green box.
- CO2 release is illustrated using yellow boxes.
Glyoxylate Cycle
- The glyoxylate cycle is an anabolic variant of the citric acid cycle.
- It bypasses the TCA cycle's decarboxylation steps, producing oxaloacetate with a net production of four-carbon dicarboxyl acids.
- It is crucial in plants for converting fatty acids to carbohydrates (fats to sugars), and in plant seeds.
- Glyoxysomes contain the enzymes needed for this conversion. This cycle is important during seed germination when plants use stored lipids (fats) for energy, before photosynthesis becomes active.
Relationship between the Glyoxylate and TCA Cycles
- Intermediates pass between the glyoxysomes and mitochondria, allowing interplay between the two cycles.
- The glyoxylate cycle converts two acetyl-CoA to succinate in glyoxysomes which in turn can convert to oxaloacetate in mitochondria.
- This is important in gluconeogenesis.
Overview of Carbohydrate Metabolism
- Glucose is phosphorylated by hexokinase to glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) inside cells.
- G6P can enter glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and glycogen synthesis.
- Fructose and galactose are converted into intermediates of glucose metabolism.
- The phosphate group in G6P is completely ionized at physiological pH, giving it an overall negative charge, making it impermeable to the plasma membrane.
Link Between Glycolysis and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway
- Glucose-6-phosphate is a substrate for both the pentose phosphate pathway and glycolysis.
- The pathway involves oxidative reactions, generating NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate.
- NADPH is required for fatty acid synthesis and other biosynthetic processes.
- Ribose-5-phosphate is needed for nucleotide synthesis.
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
- The pathway has two phases: oxidative and non-oxidative.
- Oxidative phase produces NADPH, and CO2
- Non-oxidative phase interconverts sugars of different lengths.
- Important enzymes include transketolase and transaldolase.
Conversion of Pyruvate to Oxaloacetate
- Pyruvate carboxylase catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to oxaloacetate.
- The reaction requires biotin as a cofactor and ATP as energy.
Gluconeogenesis
- Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.
- The major precursors are lactate, amino acids, and glycerol.
- The majority of gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver.
Coupling ATP and GTP Hydrolysis in Gluconeogenesis
- In gluconeogenesis, energy is required, which is provided by the hydrolysis of ATP and GTP.
- The net reaction to produce glucose from two pyruvate molecules requires 4 ATP and 2 GTP molecules.
Regulation of Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
- Key regulators of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis include fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, AMP, ATP, citrate, and acetyl-CoA.
- These molecules regulate enzyme activity through allosteric interactions.
- The regulation ensures that glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are not operating simultaneously to a great extent
Sources of Blood Glucose
- The primary sources of blood glucose are:
- Dietary carbohydrates immediately after a meal
- Glycogenolysis during the fasting period.
- Gluconeogenesis during prolonged fasting or starvation.
Quiz Questions
- Isocitrate lyase and malate synthase are the two enzymes enabling plants to metabolize acetate. They are located in the glycosomes.
- Gluconeogenesis is not merely the reversal of glycolysis because glycolysis is exergonic, and gluconeogenesis would be an endergonic process not able to proceed without supplementary energy input.
- Biotin is the prosthetic group of pyruvate carboxylase.
- The amino acid residue involved in the glucose-6-phosphatase reaction is phosphohistidine.
- Important regulators of gluconeogenesis are acetyl-CoA and fructose-2,6-bisphosphate.
- The two phases of the pentose phosphate pathway are oxidative and non-oxidative. The two primary products are NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate.
- The prosthetic group of transketolases in the non-oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway is thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP).
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Description
Explore the intricate pathways of carbohydrate metabolism including glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and more. This quiz covers the key processes involved in ATP production and the fate of carbon in the TCA cycle. Test your understanding of these essential biochemical pathways.
