Zoology Lecture Reviewer PDF

**ZOOLOGY-LECTURE REVIEWER** **TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY** **SCIENCE** - **FACTS --** empirical evidences - **DATA -** organized facts **1. QUALITATIVE DATA** **2. QUANTITATIVE DATA** **SCIENTIFIC METHOD** - is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new...

**ZOOLOGY-LECTURE REVIEWER** **TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY** **SCIENCE** - **FACTS --** empirical evidences - **DATA -** organized facts **1. QUALITATIVE DATA** **2. QUANTITATIVE DATA** **SCIENTIFIC METHOD** - is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. - It is based on gathering observable, emperical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. image.png - identifiable features distinguish scientific inquiry from other methodologies of knowledge. - Scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design experimental studies to test these hypotheses. - Theories that encompass wider domains of inquiry may bind many hypotheses together in a coherent structure. - Theories may help form new hypotheses or place groups of hypotheses into context. **OTHER CHARACTERISTICS** - the conviction that the process must be objective to reduce a biased interpretation of the results. - Another basic expectation is to document, archive and share all data and methodology so it is available for careful scrutiny by other scientists, thereby allowing other researchers the opportunity to verify results by attempting to reproduce them. - This practice, called full disclosure, also allows statistical measures of the reliability of these data to be established. - **Operation-** Some action done to the system being investigated - **Observation-** What happens when the operation is done to the system - **Model-** A fact, hypothesis, theory, or the phenomenon itself at a certain moment - **Utility function-** A measure of the usefulness of the model to explain, predict, and control, and of the cost of its use. One of the elements of any scientific utility function is the refutability of the model. Another is its simplicity, on the Principle of Parsimony also known as Occam's Razor. - Observation - Define the question - Gather information and resources (observe) - Form hypothesis - Perform experiment and collect data - Analyze data - Interpret data and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for new hypothesis - Publish results  smethorg1 **SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES** - \"The success of science has more to do with an attitude common to scientists than with a particular method. This attitude is one of inquiry, experimentation, and humility before the facts.\" - Paul G. Hewitt, Conceptual Physics, Second Edition, p. 3 - \"Having a scientific attitude consists in being willing to accept only carefully and objectively verified facts, and to hold a single fact above the authority of the oldest theories. Nothing can be called scientific that is not based on such an attitude.\" Boris Podolsky, \"What is science?,\" The Physics Teacher , 71-73 (1965). **1.curiosity** - a curious person is skeptical about things and shows deep interest in what is happening around him. He asks a lot of questions about nature. **2.objectivity** - a person is objective when he applies the scientific methods in finding the answers to problems and analyzes all situation carefully. He can withhold judgment until all facts have been checked. **3. critical-mindedness** - a person who is critically-minded seeks reliable information derived from actual observations, experiments, resource persons and research studies. He bases conclusions and generalizations on evidence. **4. creativity** - a creative person shows originality and uniqueness of his works. He proposes new ideas and solution to problems. He invents new equipment and improves the defective ones. He can be innovative, too. **5. open-mindedness** - an open-minded person is willing to consider the works of others. He is a person who listens and respects the right of others. If proven true, he is willing to change his own idea to give way to the new one. **6. responsibility** - an individual is responsible if he considers the consequences of his own actions. He invents and discovers new things for the benefit and not to the disadvantage of the world around him. **7. humility** - a humble person does not brag about his achievements. He accepts criticisms and suggestions and is willing to consult others who can help him. **7.persistence** - to be a persistent person, he must repeat unsuccessful experiments until he gets the correct data. He sustains interest in his work despite so many errors and trials. As one scientist put it, \"Success is 99% perspiration and 1% inspiration." **8. respectfulness** -respect for the view of others. **9. flexibility**- belief in cause and effect **10. resourcefulness** **11. diligence** **FIELDS OF SCIENCE** - NATURAL SCIENCE - SOCIAL SCIENCE - BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE **NATURAL SCIENCE** A. **Physical Sciences** 1\. Chemistry 2\. Physics 3\. Mathematics 4\. Astronomy 5\. Meteorology 6\. Geology 7\. Physiography **Biological Sciences** a\. Botany b\. Zoology **Social Sciences** 1\. Sociology 2\. History 3\. Political Science 4\. Philosophy **BIOLOGY** **PROTISTA** **A. Euglena as a plant** -Chlorophyll -Cellulose **B. Euglena as an Animal** -Has an eye spot -Locomotive -Has mouth -Loses its chlorophyll when in dark  **DIVISIONS OF ZOOLOGY** **\`** I.**STRUCTURAL ZOOLOGY-** studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behavior, interactions, and environment. A. MORPHOLOGY- the study of the form and structure of animals. [This field examines both the external features (such as shape, size, color, and pattern) and the internal structures (like bones and organs) of organisms](https://www.britannica.com/science/morphology-biology). B. ANATOMY- refers to the study of the structure of animals, both externally and internally. This field investigates the form and organization of various animal body parts, including organs, tissues, and systems.  C. HISTOLOGY-  the study of the microscopic structure of tissues and cells in animals. D. CYTOLOGY- the study of cells, which are the fundamental units of life in animals. II\. **DEVELOPMENTAL ZOOLOGY** - focuses on the processes by which animals grow and develop from fertilization to adulthood. A. **EMBRYOLOGY** -- studies the formation and development of embryos and fetuses or the prenatal development of the animals. (ANALOGY AND HOMOLOGY) B. **ONTOGENY**- ORIGIN AND DEV'T OF INDIVIDUAL C. **GENETICS**- the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in animals.  I. **FUNCTIONAL ZOOLOGY** A. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY B. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR WITH REGARDS TO STIMULI **TYPES OF TAXIS OR TROPISM** 1. THIGMOTAXIS/THIGMOTROPISM 2. THERMOTAXIS/THERMOTROPISM 3. PHOTOTAXIS/PHOTOTROPISM 4. GALVANOTAXIS/GALVANOTROPISM 5. GEOTAXIS/GEOTROPISM 6. HYDROTAXIS/HYDORTROPISM 7. CHEMOTAXIS/CHEMOTROPISM 8. CHROMOTAXIS/CHROMOTROPISM II. **SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY** **PROTOZOOLOGY --** study of protozoans **ENTOMOLOGY --** study of insects **CONCHOLOGY-** study of shells **MALACOLOGY --** study of mollusks **ICHTHYOLOGY --** study of fishes **HERPETOLOGY --** study of reptiles **ORNITHOLOGY --** study of birds **MAMMALOGY --** study of mammals III. **DISTRIBUTIONAL ZOOLOGY** **1.ZOOGEOGRAPHY** **2.ECOLOGY** **A.CONVERGENCE-** **B.DIVERGENCE-** **CONVERGENT EVOLUTION** - occurs when two or more groups that are not closely related come to resemble each other more and more as time passes. - This is usually the result of occupation of similar habitats and the adoption of similar environmental roles. converg2 **CONVERGENT EVOLUTION**  pic079 **DIVERGENT EVOLUTION** - \"One ancestral stock evolves into two species, which continue to evolve and become less and less alike over time." - with the extinction of the dinosaurs, the mammals were able to undergo extensive adaptive radiation to fill a wide range of ecological niches. IV. **HISTORICAL ZOOLOGY** **PALEONTOLOGY** 2\. PHYLOGENY- EVOLUTIONARY DEV'T 3\. EVOLUTION A. CONVERGENCE B. DIVERGENCE **VII. ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY** - IMPORTANCE OF ANIMALS - FOOD - CLOTHING - ADHESIVES - LEATHER - MEDICINES - NATURAL SPONGES - EMPLOYMENT **IMPORTANCE OF ZOOLOGY** - STRUCTURES OF DIFF GROUPS - BODILY PROCESSES - WAY OF LIFE OF ANIMALS - GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION - INHERITANCE - DISTRIBUTION - KNOWLEDGE USED IN: - PHYSIOLOGY - EMBRYOLOGY - GENETICS **VIII. MEDICAL ZOOLOGY** - PARASITOLOGY A. ECTOPARASITES B. ENDOPARASITES - PATHOLOGY -- CAUSE, NATURE,S & S - MICROBIOLOGY **TOPIC 2: THEORIES OF LIFE** **LIFE** -The sum total of all bodily processes of an organism **-THEORIES OF LIFE** 1.DIVINE CREATION THEORY 2.ABIOGENESIS THEORY 3.COSMOZOIC THEORY 4.PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES 5.MARINE THEORY 6.NATURALISTIC THEORY **DIFFERENCES OF LIVING AND NON-LIVING THINGS** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **BASIS** | **LIVING THINGS** | **NON-LIVING THINGS** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **1.FORM AND SIZE** | **DEFINITE FORM & | **NO DEFINITE FORM & | | | SIZE** | SIZE** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **2. CHEMICAL | **DEFINITE PROPORTION | **SAME CHEMICAL | | COMPOSITION** | OF CHEMICALS-HAS | COMPOSITION BUT NO | | | PROTOPLASM** | PROTOPLASM** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **3. ORGANIZATION** | **HAS DEFINITE | **NO DEFINITE | | | ORGANIZATION** | ORGANIZATION** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **4. METABOLISM** | **CAPABLE OF | **NOT CAPABLE OF | | | METABOLIC | METABOLIC | | | ACTIVITIES** | ACTIVITIES** | | | | | | | - **ANABOLISM** | | | | | | | | - **CATABOLISM** | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **5. IRRITABILITY** | **RESPOND TO | **NOT RESPONSIVE TO | | | STIMULI** | STIMULI** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **6. REPRODUCTION** | **REPRODUCTIVE** | **NON-REPRODUCTIVE** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **7. GROWTH** | **INTUSCEPTION** | **ACCRETION** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **8. LIFE CYCLE** | **HAS DEFINITE LIFE | **NO DEFINITE LIFE | | | CYCLE** | CYCLE** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **DIFFERENCES OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **BASIS** | **ANIMALS** | **PLANTS** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **-STRUCTURE AND | \- INVARIABLE | \- VARIABLE | | FORM** | | | | | \- INTERNAL ORGANS | -EXTERNAL ORGANS | | **-ORGANS** | | | | | \- THIN, DELICATE | -THICK, RIGID, HARD | | **B. CELL MEMBRANE** | | | | | \- DIFFERENTIAL, | -TERMINAL GROWTH OR | | **C. CHANGES** | CHANGES ARE | IS AT AGE OF THE | | | PROPORTIONAL TO AGE | ORGANS OR IS | | **D. NaCl REACTION** | | CONTINUOUS THROUGHOUT | | | \- TISSUES ARE BATHE | LIFE | | | WITH NaCl | | | | | \- NaCl IS TOXIC TO | | | | MOST PLANTS | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **2. METABOLISM** | -CATABOLIC | -ANABOLIC | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **3. IRRITABILITY** | -QUICK RESPONSE | -SLOW RESPONSE | | | | | | | -ADAPTIVE | -NOT ADAPTIVE | | | | | | | -LOCOMOTIVE | -STATIONARY | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **LIFE PROCESSES** 1\. METABOLISM 2\. RESPONSIVENESS 3\. MOVEMENT 4\. REPRODUCTION 5\. SENSITIVITY 6\. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 7\. RESPIRATION 8\. EXCRETION 9\. NUTRITION AND DIGESTION **(MR. & MRS GREN)** **SURVIVAL NEEDS** 1\. NUTRIENTS 2\. OXYGEN 3\. WATER 4\. BODY TEMPERATURE -- 37 ^o^ C 5\. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE \- the force exerted on the surface of the body by the weight of air \- high altitude -- thin air, lower atm pressure \- low altitude -- thick air , higher atm pressure **HOMEOSTASIS** - The process by which a nearly stable environment is maintained in the body so that cellular metabolic functions can proceed at maximum efficiency. - Components: 1\. Receptors -- recipients of aspirants 2\. Integrators -- control and trigger response 3\. Effectors -- carry- out responses 4\. Set points -- records or signals of acceptable ranges of conditions. \- monitors how things "should be" **TYPES OF FEEDBACK MECHANISMS** **1. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM** -the most common form of maintaining stability of the human system \- the activity alters the condition, the response reverses the altered condition **2. POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM** \- the least common response associated with instability within the system. \- the activity alters the condition; the response intensifies the condition. **EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM** - Regulation of body temperature - Regulation of blood glucose level - Regulation of hormonal level - Homeostasis of blood pressure - Accumulation of platelets in the blood clot - Re-absorption of substances in the blood **EXAMPLES OF POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM** - **CHILDBIRTH** A. Dilation stage B. Expulsion stage C. Placental Stage - **SEXUAL INTERCOURSE** A. Excitation stage B. Orgasm C. Resolution Stage !(media/image9.jpeg) **TOPIC 3: CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE** **THE PROTOPLASM** \*Life requires about 25 chemical elements. \*Atomic structure determines the behavior of an element. - Interaction among atoms (for instance, how atoms bond to form molecules) is the basis of biological structure and function. \*Each kind of atom has a characteristic number of protons, neutrons, and electrons. \*An atom\'s behavior (how it interacts with other atoms) is determined by the arrangement of its electrons. **BODY FUNCTIONS DEPEND ON CELLULAR FUNCTIONS** - biochemistry helps to explain physiological processes, and develop new drugs and methods for treating diseases - cellular functions result from chemical changes **NATURE OF MATTER** **A.ATOMIC STRUCTURE:** the universe is composed of 92 elements, each with unique atomic structure **ATOM --** the smallest unit of matter that cannot be broken down by chemical means. \- composed of protons, neutrons and electrons. **THE ATOM STRUCTURE** image.jpeg **B. MOLECULES** -- formed by 2 or more atoms bonded together **C. COMPOUNDS** -- 2 or more different types of atoms bonded together. **PROTOPLASM** - The living part of the cell composed of organic and inorganic compounds - Properties: 1. **Physical --** colloidal system \- sol --\> gel reversals **2. Chemical --** organic and inorganic compounds **3. Biological -** reproduction, metabolism, irritability, adaptability. **INORGANIC SUBSTANCES** **Water** **-**most abundant compound in living material -two-thirds of the weight of an adult human -major component of all body fluids -medium for most metabolic reactions -important role in transporting chemicals in the body -absorbs and transports heat **Oxygen (O~2~)** \- used by organelles to release energy from nutrients. in order to drive cell's metabolic activities -necessary for survival. **Carbon dioxide (CO~2~)** -waste product released during metabolic reactions. -must be removed from the body. **Inorganic salts** \- abundant in body fluids. \- sources of necessary ions (Na^+^, Cl^-^, K^+^, Ca^2+^, etc.) \- play important roles in metabolism. **ORGANICSUBSTANCES\ **-Carbohydrates -provide energy to cells -supply materials to build cell structures -water-soluble -contain C, H, and O -ratio of H to O close to 2:1 (C~6~H~12~O~6~) - **monosaccharides --** glucose, fructose, galactose, pentose - **disaccharides --** sucrose (glucose + fructose) \- lactose (glucose + galactose) - **polysaccharides --** glycogen, cellulose **LIPIDS** soluble in organic solvents; insoluble in water. - **fats (triglycerides)** - used primarily for energy; most common lipid in the body. - contain C, H, and O but less O than carbohydrates (C~57~H~110~O~6~). - building blocks are 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids per molecule. - saturated and unsaturated. - **phospholipids** - building blocks are 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and 1 phosphate per molecule. - hydrophilic and hydrophobic. - major component of cell membranes.  image.jpeg  - **steroids** - four connected rings of carbon. - widely distributed in the body, various functions. - component of cell membrane. - used to synthesize hormones. image.jpeg **PROTEINS** - structural material - energy source - hormones - receptors - Enzymes - Antibodies - amino acids held together with peptide bonds. image.jpeg  image.jpeg **NUCLEIC ACIDS** - carry genes - encode amino acid sequences of proteins. - Building blocks are nucleotides. - **DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) --** double polynucleotide. - **RNA (ribonucleic acid) --** single polynucleotide.  dna100900 **TOPIC 4: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION** **What is a cell?** - A cell is a small membrane-bound structure that contains all the requirements for life. - It is the smallest living structure. - The basic unit of life composed of organelles and inclusion bodies. **HISTORY OF CELL BIOLOGY** **Anton Von Leeuwenhoek** - 17th century Dutch draper, lens grinder, microscope architect, and microscopist. - "Invented the microscope" (1600s). - maintained voluminous notes and detailed drawings of his viewings. - 1665 Robert Hooke "discovered" the cell - Robert Brown -- nucleus and cyclosis - 1838 Matthias Schleiden proposed that all plants are made up of cells. - 1839 Theodore Schwann proposed that all animals are made up of cells. - 1858 Rudolf Virchow proposed his theory of biogenesis: All cells come from pre-existing cells (life from life). This discredits the theory of spontaneous generation. - Jan Evangelista Purkinje -- the first one to use the term protoplasm to describe the living part of the cell **The Cell Theory** 1\. All living things are composed of cells.\ - can be a single cell or many cells 2\. The cell is the smallest living thing that shows all of the characteristics of life. - homeostasis, metabolism, responsiveness, reproduction, evolution 2. All cells come from preexisting living cells. **WHY ARE CELLS SO SMALL?** - In order to be efficient in producing materials and energy for survival, cells must maintain a small surface to volume ratio. - 1\. The surface membrane must be large enough to control what enters and leaves the cell 2\. The volume of the cell must be small enough so that reactants can find each other.  **METHODS OF STUDYING CELLS** 1. MICROSCOPY 2. CELL CULTURE 3. ULTRACONFIGURATION/ CENTRIFUGATION **ELECTRON MICRSOCOPES:** **1. *[Scanning electron microscope ]*(SEM)** -It has high magnification and high resolution. The specimen is coated in gold and the electrons bounce off to give you an exterior view of the specimen. The pictures are in black and white. **2. *[Transmission electron microscope]* (TEM)** -Thin slices of specimen are obtained. The electron beams pass through this. It has high magnification and high resolution. 400px-Misc\_pollen (**SCANNING)**  **(USING A TEM MICROSCOPE)** **Techniques in Optical Microscopy:** **1. *Bright field microscopy*** \- is the simplest of all the light microscopy techniques. Sample illumination is via transmitted white light, i.e. illuminated from below and observed from above. -Limitations include low contrast of most biological samples and low apparent resolution due to the blur of out of focus material.  **MICROSCOPY** - **light microscope** - light as source of illumination. - glass lenses. - limited resolution (loses resolving power at magnifications above 2000X) - **electron microscope** - beam of electrons directed by magnets into a viewing screen or photographic plate. - greater magnification than light microscope. - greater resolving power than light microscope. LightMicroscope  ***2.Dark field microscopy*** \- is a technique for improving the contrast of unstained, transparent specimens. -Dark field illumination uses a carefully aligned light source to minimize the quantity of directly-transmitted (unscattered) light entering the image plane, collecting only the light scattered by the sample. 180px-Mysis2kils  **3. *Flourescence microscopy*** -When certain compounds are illuminated with high energy light, they then emit light of a different, lower frequency. This effect is known as fluorescence. 120px-Yeast\_membrane\_proteins **YEAST CELL LYMPHOCYCTE** 120px-Dividing\_Cell\_Fluorescence**HUMAN CANCER CELL** Intro3 **TYPES OF CELLS BASED ON COMPLEXITY:** ***Prokaryotic*** - \- lacks nuclear membrane; possesses no well-defined nucleus; possesses few organelles. - Examples: bacteria and other monerans.  **EUKARYOTIC** - possesses nuclear membrane; possesses well-defined nucleus; many organelles present; - \- about 10 times the size of a typical prokaryote and can be as much as 1000 times greater in volume. -. Examples: protists; cells of fungi, plants, and animals. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/courses/c2005/purves6/figure04-07a.jpg  +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Criteria** | **Prokaryotic** | **Eukaryotic** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Number** | **Unicellular** | **Uni- to | | | | Multicellular** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Size** | **Small** | **Large, Usually | | | | 10x** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Organization** | **Simple** | **Complex** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Genetic Material** | **Lacks distinct | **With Distinct | | | nucleus, DNA | nucleus, DNA tightly | | | unbounded** | packed** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Cell Division** | **Budding, Fission** | **Mitosis, Meiosis** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Kingdom** | **Monera** | **Protista,Fungi** | | | | | | | | **Animalia, Plantae** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **THE HUMAN CELL** - The human cell is bounded by a plasma membrane that encloses a central nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm. - Cytoplasm contains organelles, membranous structures, and a cytoskeleton. - Human cells differ in size, shape and function. squamos neuron **CELL SIZE** - most cells are - length of nerve cell 1 meter (m) - largest single cell ostrich egg **Cell Organization** **I. *The Plasma Membrane*** 1. Composed of a phospholipid bi-layer with embedded proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol a. Glycoproteins and glycolipids serve as identification markers b. Embedded proteins may serve as hormone receptors, transport channels, or enzymes in metabolic reactions c. Cholesterol is a membrane stabilizer. 1. ***Phospholipid bilayer*** 3**. *Protein layer*** 1\. extrinsic protein 2\. intrinsic protein  **2. Plasma Membrane Functions** -Keeps the cell intact and being selectively permeable, it regulates what enters or leaves the cell - **a. [Diffusion]** is the random movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. - some molecules can diffuse across the plasma membrane - **b. [Osmosis]** is the movement of water across a membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration. **c. Transport across the plasma membrane by a carrier** - Some carrier molecules require no energy (facilitated diffusion). - Other transport carriers require energy (active transport). **d. Endocytosis and Exocytosis** - [Endocytosis] occurs when the plasma membrane forms a vesicle around a particle outside the cell and brings the particle into the cell. - [Exocytosis] occurs when a vesicle inside the cell fuses with the plasma membrane and dumps it's contents outside the cell. **II. The Cytoplasm** - The cellular material outside the nucleus - The site of most cellular activities - The factory area of the cell - Components: a\. cytosol -- semi-transparent fluid that suspends other elements of the cell b\. organelles c\. inclusions **DIFFERENCES OF ORGANELLES AND INCLUSIONS** **ORGANELLES** - Permanent living components of the cell - Machinery of the cell engineered to carry out their own function examples: Nucleus, G.A., mitochondria, ER, lysosomes, peroxisome, proteasomes **INCLUSIONS** - temporary, non-living accumulation of metabolites - Stored nutrients and cellular products - examples: **TYPES OF ORGANELLES** **1. *Membranous Organelles*** \- membrane-bounded structures of the Cell. \- Nucleus, G.A., mitochondria, ER, lysosomes, peroxisome, proteasomes. **2. *Non-membranous Organelles*** \- not bounded by membrane ex. cytoskeleton, centrioles. **a. *The Nucleus*** - The nucleus is the control center for the cell - DNA in the nucleus directs protein synthesis in the cytoplasm - Nuclear structures: **b. 1 Nucleoli** - the nucleus contains one or more where ribosomal RNA is synthesized. **b. 2 The nuclear envelope**- a double membrane that surrounds the DNA and has pores that connect it with the cytoplasm. image.jpeg **B. *Ribosomes (Microbodies)*** - A mix of ribosomal RNA and protein that forms a structure of two subunits. - They are the site of protein synthesis. - Has small ribosomal units and large ribosomal units.  **TYPES OF RIBOSOMES** **1. *Attached ribosomes*** \- located in the ER \- for CHON synthesis **2. *Free ribosomes*** \- located in the cytoplasm \- for cellular uses **C. *The Internal Membrane System*** - **1.*The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)*** is a series of membranes that form channels through the cytoplasm a. ***Rough ER*** specializes in protein synthesis. b. ***Smooth ER*** produces different substances in different cells, steroid, CHO synthesis. image.jpeg **2. *The Golgi Apparatus*** -a. A series of flattened sacks that accept materials from the ER -b. packages, stores, and modifies the materials and places them in vesicles for delivery -c. always near the nucleus, the principal traffic director for cellular CHONS -d.. forms vescicles, vacoules,etc.  membrane\_flow **D. *Lysosomes*** -Vesicles formed by the Golgi Apparatus that contain hydrolytic enzymes -Digest food particles brought into the cell by endocytosis, and digest worn out and unwanted materials within the cell -With hydrolytic enzymes  **Lysosomal Activity** **1. *AUTOPHAGY* --** digestion of damaged organelles by the lysosomes of the cells **2. *AUTOLYSIS*** -- digestion of the its own damaged cells. \- related to aging. image.jpeg **E. *Mitochondria*** - Small double membrane bound organelles. - Convert the energy stored in glucose into ATP molecules by a process known as aerobic respiration. - CRISTAE -- area where there is greater ATP production. **F. *PEROXISOMES*** - Membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase - For detoxification of toxins such as alcoho,formaldehyde - Disarm dangerous free radicals (highly reactive chemicals w/ unpaired e- which can scramble CHON & nucleic acid structures. **G. *PROTEASOME*** - Organelles responsible for recycling of cellular materials. - With enzyme called proteases. - Bounded by membranes. - deal primarily with endogenous proteins; that is, proteins that were synthesized within the cell such as: - Transcription factors. - cyclins (which must be destroyed to prepare for the next step in the cell cycle). **H. *The Cytoskeleton*** - 1\. A network of filamentous protein structures - 2\. Provides an internal framework for the cell - 3\. Centrioles are structures that occur in pairs in the cell that organize the microtubules within the cell - Also, give rise to basal bodies that direct the formation of cilia and flagella - TYPES: **1. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS** **2. MICROFILAMENTS** **3. MICROTUBULES** **TYPES OF CYTOSKELETONS** **1. *INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS*** \* strong,stable,rope-like \* form desmosomes and provide internal guy wires to resist pulling forces on the cell **2. *MICROFILAMENTS*** \* involved in motility and producing changes in the cell shape. **3. *MICROTUBULES*** \* tube-like structures which determine the overall shape of the cell and the distribution of the organelles. \* important in cell division !(media/image48.jpeg) image.jpeg **I. *Cilia and flagella*** - Hairlike projections of the cells - Responsible for locomotion in some cells; also, movement of invading organisms out of the body - Flagella are relatively large in size and occur in small numbers - Cilia are short and occur in large numbers. **TOPIC 5: TISSUES** **Tissues** -aggregates of cells of a particular kind together with their associated intercellular materials. **Four Basic Tissues** **-Epithelial Tissue** -- exists as a cellular membranous tissue that covers a free surface or lines of a tube or cavity. -- function in protection, secretion, excretion, and absorption. **Connective Tissue** -- exists as abundant intercellular substance (such as fibers) with few cellular aggregations. -- function in providing structural support (ex. tendon), transporting materials (ex. blood ), and storing energy (ex. adipose). **Muscle Tissue** 1\. skeletal 2\. cardiac 3\. smooth (visceral). -- Muscle cells have abundant contractile proteins that allow the cells to function in contraction. Contraction produces movement and heat for the maintenance of body temperature. **Neural Tissue** -- the tissue of the nervous system. -- The nervous system controls the body's activities by electrical conduction and neurochemical messengers. **STRUCTURE OF EPITHELIA** Shape of the cells at the Free Surface \(1) **squamous**: flat and thin \(2) **cuboidal**: same height & width \(3) **columnar**: taller than wide **Number of Cell Layers** **(1) a single layer:** simple epithelia cells of pseudostratified epithelia are of different height **2) two or more layers:** stratified epithelia image.png  **SIMPLE EPITHELIA** **Simple Squamous Epithelium** \- formed by a single layer of flat, thin cells **Locations:** stratum corneum, inner cheek, peritoneum **Functions:** filtration, diffusion, and secretion **Simple Cuboidal Epithelium** \- consists of a single layer of cuboidal cells **Locations:** \(1) lines most of the tubules in the kidney 2\) lines the excretory duct and forms the secretory portion of many glands 3\) lines the ovary Functions: secretion and absorption **Simple Columnar Epithelium** \- consists of a single layer of columnar cells. **Locations:** forms the lining of: \(1) the digestive tract from the stomach to the anus \(2) the excretory ducts of some glands \(3) the interior of the gallbladder **Functions:** secretion and absorption **Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium** \- consists of a single layer of columnar cells of different heights **Locations:** \(1) lines most of the nasal cavity \(2) lines the trachea \(3) lines the bronchi, and \(4) lines some of the male reproductive tract. **Functions:** \(1) protection \(2) secretion \(3) the movement of substances (mucus) over the surface by cilia **STRATIFIED EPITHELIA** \- consists of two or more cell layers Stratified Squamous Epithelium \- formed by many layers of cells with the surface cells being squamous. **Locations:** Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium: in the skin (epidermis). Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium: \(1) lining of the oral cavity \(2) esophagus \(3) anus \(4) vagina Functions: protection from abrasion by the sloughing of surface cells. The keratinized variety of the epidermis also protects the body from water loss. **Connective Tissues** **Location**: widely distributed tissues of the body. **Examples**: bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, blood, and the abundant loose connective tissues (such as adipose) located in and around other tissues. **Functions:** \(1) Framework \(2) support \(3) binding \(4) protection \(5) Insulation \(6) transportation (specifically for blood). **Components:** 1\. Matrix: constitute the non-living extracellular material; responsible for the nature of the specific connective tissue: a\. ground substance b\. fibers 2\. Cells **Connective Tissue Proper** **(1) loose connective tissue:** **(a) areolar:** abundant collagenous, elastic & reticular fibers, \- attach skin to underlying tissue, supports organs (blood vessels & glands) **(b) adipose:** \- subcutaneously & around internal organs energy source reserve, insulator fm heat loss, support structures, cushion organs **(c) reticular**: thin, delicate, highly branched reticular fibers with small ground substance; liver, lymph nodes, spleen, & bone marrow \- support framework of soft organs **(2) dense connective tissue:** **(a) regular:** dense parallel collagenous fibers with fibroblasts; tendons (attach muscle to bone) ligaments (attach bone to bone) \- provides: attachment & tensile strength **(b) irregular:** irregularly arranged collagenous fibers; with small ground substance dermis, fascia (connective tissue sheets surrounding muscles, liver & lymph node) for structural support, organization, & strength. **(c) elastic:** special type of dense regular; densely arranged elastic fibers with scattered collagenous fibers in small spaces & fibroblast \- vocal cords, large arteries, walls of bronchi, trachea, ligamentum nuchae for strength, stretch, & recoil **Cartilage** **(1) hyaline: -** ribs, ends of long bones articular cartilage), **(2) tip of the nose,** **(3) framework of large respiratory air way** -for support, structural framework, & cushioning **(2) fibrocartilage:** - intervertebral discs, knee joint, **symphysis pubis** -provide strength & resist compressions **(3) elastic cartilage:** abundant collagenous & elastic fibers embedded in small ground substance matrix provide strength & resist compression chondroblast are distributed among fibers **- lacunae (small cavities) surround the cells** external ear & epiglottis for support, framework & flexibility **Bone** **T**he matrix of bone is characterized by being: **(1) rigid** **(2) strong** **(3) calcium salts: make bone tissue hard** **(4) collagen fibers: give strenth** consists of 1/3 collagenous fibers, 2/3 calcium salts **osteocyte:** mature bone cell **osteoblast:** bone forming cell The structural cells are named according to their activity, osteoblasts or osteocytes. According to the characteristics of the matrix, bone is divided into two types: **(1) compact:** **(2) spongy (cancellous)** **Function:** **(1) providing protection** **(2) serving as attachment sites for muscles and connective tissues** **(3) providing reserves for minerals** **(4) blood cell production (marrow)** **(5) providing a site for fat deposit (yellow marrow)**